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Cubism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Georges Braque, Woman with a guitar, 1913Cubism was a 20th century art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music and literature. The first branch of cubism, known as Analytic Cubism, was both radical and influential as a short but highly significant art movement between 1908 and 1911 in France. In its second phase, Synthetic Cubism, the movement spread and remained vital until around 1919, when the Surrealist movement gained popularity.
In cubist artworks, objects are broken up, analyzed, and re-assembled in an abstracted form?instead of depicting objects from one viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater context. Often the surfaces intersect at seemingly random angles, removing a coherent sense of depth. The background and object planes interpenetrate one another to create the shallow ambiguous space, one of cubism's distinct characteristics.
Contents [hide]
1 Conception and origins
2 Analytic Cubism
3 Synthetic Cubism
4 Cubism and its ideologies
5 Cubism in other fields
6 References
7 Further reading
8 See also
9 External links
[edit] Conception and origins
Pablo Picasso, Le guitariste, 1910During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the European cultural elite were discovering African, Micronesian and Native American art for the first time. Artists such as Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of those foreign cultures. Around 1904, Picasso met Matisse through Gertrude Stein, at a time when both artists had recently acquired an interest in African sculpture. They became friendly rivals and competed with each other throughout their careers, perhaps leading to Picasso entering a new period in his work by 1907, marked by the influence of Greek, Iberian and African art. Picasso's paintings of 1907 have been characterized as Protocubism, as notably seen in Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, the antecedent of Cubism.
Some believe that the roots of cubism are to be found in the two distinct tendencies of Paul C?zanne's later work: firstly to break the painted surface into small multifaceted areas of paint, thereby emphasising the plural viewpoint given by binocular vision, and secondly his interest in the simplification of natural forms into cylinders, spheres, and cones.
However, the cubists explored this concept further than C?zanne; they represented all the surfaces of depicted objects in a single picture plane, as if the objects had had all their faces visible at the same time. This new kind of depiction revolutionised the way in which objects could be visualised in painting and art.
The invention of Cubism was a joint effort between Picasso and Braque, then residents of Montmartre, Paris. These artists were the movement's main innovators. A later active participant was the Spaniard Juan Gris. After meeting in 1907 Braque and Picasso in particular began working on the development of Cubism. Picasso was initially the force and influence that persuaded Braque by 1908 to move away from Fauvism. The two artists began working closely together in late 1908 - early 1909 until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. The movement spread quickly throughout Paris and Europe.
French art critic Louis Vauxcelles first used the term "cubism", or "bizarre cubiques", in 1908 after seeing a picture by Braque. He described it as 'full of little cubes', after which the term quickly gained wide usem although the two creators did not initially adopt it. Art historian Ernst Gombrich described cubism as "the most radical attempt to stamp out ambiguity and to enforce one reading of the picture - that of a man-made construction, a colored canvas."[1]
Juan Gris, Portrait of Picasso, 1912, oil on canvasCubism was taken up by many artists in Montparnasse and promoted by art dealer Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, becoming popular so quickly that by 1911 critics were referring to a "cubist school" of artists. However, many of the artists who thought of themselves as cubists went in directions quite different from Braque and Picasso. The Puteaux Group was a significant offshoot of the Cubist movement; it included Guillaume Apollinaire, Robert Delaunay, Marcel Duchamp, his brother Jacques Villon, and Fernand L?ger.
In 1913 the United States was exposed to cubism and modern European art when Jacques Villon exhibited seven important and large drypoints at the famous Armory Show in New York City. Braque and Picasso themselves went through several distinct phases before 1920, and some of these works had been seen in New York prior to the Armory Show, at Alfred Stieglitz's "291" gallery. Czech artists who realized the epochal significance of cubism of Picasso and Braque attempted to extract its components for their own work in all branches of artistic creativity - especially painting and architecture. This developed into so-called Czech Cubism which was an avant-garde art movement of Czech proponents of cubism active mostly in Prague from 1910 to 1914.
[edit] Analytic Cubism
Analytical Cubism is one of the two major branches of the artistic movement of Cubism and was developed between 1908 and 1912. In contrast to Synthetic cubism, Analytic cubists "analyzed" natural forms and reduced the forms into basic geometric parts on the two-dimensional picture plane. Color was almost non-existent except for the use of a monochromatic scheme that often included grey, blue and ochre. Instead of an emphasis on color, Analytic cubists focused on forms like the cylinder, sphere and the cone to represent the natural world. During this movement, the works produced by Picasso and Braque shared stylistic similarities.
Both painters Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque moved toward abstraction, leaving only enough signs of the real world to supply a tension between the reality outside the painting and the complicated meditations on visual language within the frame, exemplified through their paintings Ma Jolie (1911), by Picasso and The Portuguese (1911), by Braque.
In Paris in 1907 there was a major museum retrospective exhibition of the work of Paul Cezanne shortly after his death. The exhibition was enormously influential in establishing Cezanne as an important painter whose ideas were particularly resonant especially to young artists in Paris. Both Picasso and Braque found the inspiration for Cubism from Paul Cezanne, who said to observe and learn to see and treat nature as if it were composed of basic shapes like cubes, spheres, cylinders, and cones. Picasso was the main analytic cubist, but Braque was also prominent, having abandoned Fauvism to work with Picasso in developing the Cubist lexicon.
Juan Gris, Still Life with Fruit Dish and Mandolin, 1919, oil on canvas
[edit] Synthetic Cubism
Synthetic Cubism was the second main branch of Cubism developed by Picasso, Braque, Juan Gris and others between 1912 and 1919. It was seen as the first time that collage had been made as a fine art work.
The first work of this new style was Picasso's Still Life with Chair-caning (1911?1912), which includes oil cloth pasted on the canvas. At the upper left are the letters "JOU", which appear in many cubist paintings and may refer to a newspaper titled "Le Journal". Newspaper clippings were a common inclusion in this style of cubism, whereby physical pieces of newspaper, sheet music, or the like were included in the collages. JOU may also at the same time be a pun on the French words jeu (game) or jouer (to play). Picasso and Braque had a constant friendly competition with each other and including the letters in their works may have been an extension of their game.
Whereas analytic cubism was an analysis of the subjects (pulling them apart into planes), synthetic cubism is more of a pushing of several objects together. Picasso, through this movement, was the first to use text in his artwork (to flatten the space), and the use of mixed media?using more than one type of medium in the same piece. Opposed to analytic cubism, synthetic cubism has fewer planar shifts (or schematism), and less shading, creating flatter space.
Another technique used was called papier coll?, or stuck paper, which Braque used in his collage Fruit Dish and Glass (1913).
[edit] Cubism and its ideologies
Paris before World War I was a ferment of politics. New anarcho-syndicalist trade unions and women's rights movements were especially new and vigorous. There were strong movements around patriotic nationalism. Cubism was a particularly varied art movement in its political affiliations, with some sections being broadly anarchist or leftist, while others were strongly aligned with nationalist sentiment.
[edit] Cubism in other fields
Cubist villa in Prague, Czech RepublicThe written works of Gertrude Stein employ repetition and repetitive phrases as building blocks in both passages and whole chapters. Most of Stein's important works utilize this technique, including the novel The Makings of Americans (1906?08) Not only were they the first important patrons of Cubism, Gertrude Stein and her brother Leo were also important influences on Cubism as well. Picasso in turn was an important influence on Stein's writing.
The poets generally associated with Cubism are Guillaume Apollinaire, Blaise Cendrars, Jean Cocteau, Max Jacob, Andr? Salmon and Pierre Reverdy. As American poet Kenneth Rexroth explains, Cubism in poetry "is the conscious, deliberate dissociation and recombination of elements into a new artistic entity made self-sufficient by its rigorous architecture. This is quite different from the free association of the Surrealists and the combination of unconscious utterance and political nihilism of Dada."[2] Nonetheless, the Cubist poets' influence on both Cubism and the later movements of Dada and Surrealism was profound; Louis Aragon, founding member of Surrealism, said that for Breton, Soupault, ?luard and himself, Reverdy was "our immediate elder, the exemplary poet."[3] Though not as well remembered as the Cubist painters, these poets continue to influence and inspire; American poets John Ashbery and Ron Padgett have recently produced new translations of Reverdy's work.
Cubist House of the Black Madonna, Prague, Czech Republic, 1912Wallace Stevens' "Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird" is also said to demonstrate how cubism's multiple perspectives can be translated into poetry.
The composer Edgard Var?se was heavily influenced by Cubist writing and art.
In architecture, Frank Lloyd Wright gained widespread notoriety for his three-dimensional cubist building designs with highly fractured floor plans.
[edit] References
^ Ernst Gombrich (1960) Art and Illusion, as quoted in Marshall McLuhan (1964) Understanding Media, p.12 [1]
^ http://www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/essays/reverdy.htm
^ http://www.bloodaxebooks.com/titlepage.asp?isbn=1852241543
[edit] Further reading
John Cauman (2001). Inheriting Cubism: The Impact of Cubism on American Art, 1909-1936. New York: Hollis Taggart Galleries. ISBN 0-9705723-4-4.
[edit] See also
Czech Cubism
[edit] External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
CubismOn-Line Picasso Project
The Cubist Rupture Artistic comments in MundoArta
Video decoding a Picasso Cubist still-life
ibiblio (internet library) Cubism
The Czech Cubism Foundation (English)
Cubism, The Big Picture
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Georges Braque, Woman with a guitar, 1913Cubism was a 20th century art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music and literature. The first branch of cubism, known as Analytic Cubism, was both radical and influential as a short but highly significant art movement between 1908 and 1911 in France. In its second phase, Synthetic Cubism, the movement spread and remained vital until around 1919, when the Surrealist movement gained popularity.
In cubist artworks, objects are broken up, analyzed, and re-assembled in an abstracted form?instead of depicting objects from one viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater context. Often the surfaces intersect at seemingly random angles, removing a coherent sense of depth. The background and object planes interpenetrate one another to create the shallow ambiguous space, one of cubism's distinct characteristics.
Contents [hide]
1 Conception and origins
2 Analytic Cubism
3 Synthetic Cubism
4 Cubism and its ideologies
5 Cubism in other fields
6 References
7 Further reading
8 See also
9 External links
[edit] Conception and origins
Pablo Picasso, Le guitariste, 1910During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the European cultural elite were discovering African, Micronesian and Native American art for the first time. Artists such as Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of those foreign cultures. Around 1904, Picasso met Matisse through Gertrude Stein, at a time when both artists had recently acquired an interest in African sculpture. They became friendly rivals and competed with each other throughout their careers, perhaps leading to Picasso entering a new period in his work by 1907, marked by the influence of Greek, Iberian and African art. Picasso's paintings of 1907 have been characterized as Protocubism, as notably seen in Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, the antecedent of Cubism.
Some believe that the roots of cubism are to be found in the two distinct tendencies of Paul C?zanne's later work: firstly to break the painted surface into small multifaceted areas of paint, thereby emphasising the plural viewpoint given by binocular vision, and secondly his interest in the simplification of natural forms into cylinders, spheres, and cones.
However, the cubists explored this concept further than C?zanne; they represented all the surfaces of depicted objects in a single picture plane, as if the objects had had all their faces visible at the same time. This new kind of depiction revolutionised the way in which objects could be visualised in painting and art.
The invention of Cubism was a joint effort between Picasso and Braque, then residents of Montmartre, Paris. These artists were the movement's main innovators. A later active participant was the Spaniard Juan Gris. After meeting in 1907 Braque and Picasso in particular began working on the development of Cubism. Picasso was initially the force and influence that persuaded Braque by 1908 to move away from Fauvism. The two artists began working closely together in late 1908 - early 1909 until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. The movement spread quickly throughout Paris and Europe.
French art critic Louis Vauxcelles first used the term "cubism", or "bizarre cubiques", in 1908 after seeing a picture by Braque. He described it as 'full of little cubes', after which the term quickly gained wide usem although the two creators did not initially adopt it. Art historian Ernst Gombrich described cubism as "the most radical attempt to stamp out ambiguity and to enforce one reading of the picture - that of a man-made construction, a colored canvas."[1]
Juan Gris, Portrait of Picasso, 1912, oil on canvasCubism was taken up by many artists in Montparnasse and promoted by art dealer Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, becoming popular so quickly that by 1911 critics were referring to a "cubist school" of artists. However, many of the artists who thought of themselves as cubists went in directions quite different from Braque and Picasso. The Puteaux Group was a significant offshoot of the Cubist movement; it included Guillaume Apollinaire, Robert Delaunay, Marcel Duchamp, his brother Jacques Villon, and Fernand L?ger.
In 1913 the United States was exposed to cubism and modern European art when Jacques Villon exhibited seven important and large drypoints at the famous Armory Show in New York City. Braque and Picasso themselves went through several distinct phases before 1920, and some of these works had been seen in New York prior to the Armory Show, at Alfred Stieglitz's "291" gallery. Czech artists who realized the epochal significance of cubism of Picasso and Braque attempted to extract its components for their own work in all branches of artistic creativity - especially painting and architecture. This developed into so-called Czech Cubism which was an avant-garde art movement of Czech proponents of cubism active mostly in Prague from 1910 to 1914.
[edit] Analytic Cubism
Analytical Cubism is one of the two major branches of the artistic movement of Cubism and was developed between 1908 and 1912. In contrast to Synthetic cubism, Analytic cubists "analyzed" natural forms and reduced the forms into basic geometric parts on the two-dimensional picture plane. Color was almost non-existent except for the use of a monochromatic scheme that often included grey, blue and ochre. Instead of an emphasis on color, Analytic cubists focused on forms like the cylinder, sphere and the cone to represent the natural world. During this movement, the works produced by Picasso and Braque shared stylistic similarities.
Both painters Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque moved toward abstraction, leaving only enough signs of the real world to supply a tension between the reality outside the painting and the complicated meditations on visual language within the frame, exemplified through their paintings Ma Jolie (1911), by Picasso and The Portuguese (1911), by Braque.
In Paris in 1907 there was a major museum retrospective exhibition of the work of Paul Cezanne shortly after his death. The exhibition was enormously influential in establishing Cezanne as an important painter whose ideas were particularly resonant especially to young artists in Paris. Both Picasso and Braque found the inspiration for Cubism from Paul Cezanne, who said to observe and learn to see and treat nature as if it were composed of basic shapes like cubes, spheres, cylinders, and cones. Picasso was the main analytic cubist, but Braque was also prominent, having abandoned Fauvism to work with Picasso in developing the Cubist lexicon.
Juan Gris, Still Life with Fruit Dish and Mandolin, 1919, oil on canvas
[edit] Synthetic Cubism
Synthetic Cubism was the second main branch of Cubism developed by Picasso, Braque, Juan Gris and others between 1912 and 1919. It was seen as the first time that collage had been made as a fine art work.
The first work of this new style was Picasso's Still Life with Chair-caning (1911?1912), which includes oil cloth pasted on the canvas. At the upper left are the letters "JOU", which appear in many cubist paintings and may refer to a newspaper titled "Le Journal". Newspaper clippings were a common inclusion in this style of cubism, whereby physical pieces of newspaper, sheet music, or the like were included in the collages. JOU may also at the same time be a pun on the French words jeu (game) or jouer (to play). Picasso and Braque had a constant friendly competition with each other and including the letters in their works may have been an extension of their game.
Whereas analytic cubism was an analysis of the subjects (pulling them apart into planes), synthetic cubism is more of a pushing of several objects together. Picasso, through this movement, was the first to use text in his artwork (to flatten the space), and the use of mixed media?using more than one type of medium in the same piece. Opposed to analytic cubism, synthetic cubism has fewer planar shifts (or schematism), and less shading, creating flatter space.
Another technique used was called papier coll?, or stuck paper, which Braque used in his collage Fruit Dish and Glass (1913).
[edit] Cubism and its ideologies
Paris before World War I was a ferment of politics. New anarcho-syndicalist trade unions and women's rights movements were especially new and vigorous. There were strong movements around patriotic nationalism. Cubism was a particularly varied art movement in its political affiliations, with some sections being broadly anarchist or leftist, while others were strongly aligned with nationalist sentiment.
[edit] Cubism in other fields
Cubist villa in Prague, Czech RepublicThe written works of Gertrude Stein employ repetition and repetitive phrases as building blocks in both passages and whole chapters. Most of Stein's important works utilize this technique, including the novel The Makings of Americans (1906?08) Not only were they the first important patrons of Cubism, Gertrude Stein and her brother Leo were also important influences on Cubism as well. Picasso in turn was an important influence on Stein's writing.
The poets generally associated with Cubism are Guillaume Apollinaire, Blaise Cendrars, Jean Cocteau, Max Jacob, Andr? Salmon and Pierre Reverdy. As American poet Kenneth Rexroth explains, Cubism in poetry "is the conscious, deliberate dissociation and recombination of elements into a new artistic entity made self-sufficient by its rigorous architecture. This is quite different from the free association of the Surrealists and the combination of unconscious utterance and political nihilism of Dada."[2] Nonetheless, the Cubist poets' influence on both Cubism and the later movements of Dada and Surrealism was profound; Louis Aragon, founding member of Surrealism, said that for Breton, Soupault, ?luard and himself, Reverdy was "our immediate elder, the exemplary poet."[3] Though not as well remembered as the Cubist painters, these poets continue to influence and inspire; American poets John Ashbery and Ron Padgett have recently produced new translations of Reverdy's work.
Cubist House of the Black Madonna, Prague, Czech Republic, 1912Wallace Stevens' "Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird" is also said to demonstrate how cubism's multiple perspectives can be translated into poetry.
The composer Edgard Var?se was heavily influenced by Cubist writing and art.
In architecture, Frank Lloyd Wright gained widespread notoriety for his three-dimensional cubist building designs with highly fractured floor plans.
[edit] References
^ Ernst Gombrich (1960) Art and Illusion, as quoted in Marshall McLuhan (1964) Understanding Media, p.12 [1]
^ http://www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/essays/reverdy.htm
^ http://www.bloodaxebooks.com/titlepage.asp?isbn=1852241543
[edit] Further reading
John Cauman (2001). Inheriting Cubism: The Impact of Cubism on American Art, 1909-1936. New York: Hollis Taggart Galleries. ISBN 0-9705723-4-4.
[edit] See also
Czech Cubism
[edit] External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
CubismOn-Line Picasso Project
The Cubist Rupture Artistic comments in MundoArta
Video decoding a Picasso Cubist still-life
ibiblio (internet library) Cubism
The Czech Cubism Foundation (English)
Cubism, The Big Picture
Quantum mechanics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Quantum physics)
Jump to: navigation, search
For a generally accessible and less technical introduction to the topic, see Introduction to quantum mechanics.
Quantum mechanics
Introduction to...
Mathematical formulation of...
[show]Fundamental concepts
Quantum state ? Superposition
Interference ? Entanglement
Measurement ? Uncertainty
Exclusion ? Duality
Decoherence
[show]Experiments
Double-slit experiment
Davisson-Germer experiment
Stern?Gerlach experiment
Bell's inequality experiment
Popper's experiment
Schr?dinger's cat
[show]Equations
Schr?dinger equation
Pauli equation
Klein-Gordon equation
Dirac equation
[show]Advanced theories
Quantum field theory
Wightman axioms
Quantum electrodynamics
Quantum chromodynamics
Quantum gravity
Feynman diagram
[show]Interpretations
Copenhagen ? Ensemble
Hidden variables ? Transactional
Many-worlds ? Consistent histories
Quantum logic
Consciousness causes collapse
[show]Scientists
Planck ? Schr?dinger
Heisenberg ? Bohr ? Pauli
Dirac ? Bohm ? Born
de Broglie ? von Neumann
Einstein ? Feynman
Everett ? Penrose ? Others
This box: view ? talk ? edit
Fig. 1: The wavefunctions of an electron in a hydrogen atom possessing definite energy (increasing downward: n = 1, 2, 3, ...) and angular momentum (increasing across: s, p, d,...). Brighter areas correspond to higher probability density for a position measurement. Wavefunctions like these are directly comparable to Chladni's figures of acoustic modes of vibration in classical physics and are indeed modes of oscillation as well: they possess a sharp energy and thus a sharp frequency. The angular momentum and energy are quantized, and only take on discrete values like those shown (as is the case for resonant frequencies in acoustics).In physics, quantum mechanics is the study of the relationship between energy quanta (radiation) and matter, in particular that between valence shell electrons and photons. Quantum mechanics is a fundamental branch of physics with wide applications in both experimental and theoretical physics. Quantum theory generalizes all classical theories, including mechanics, electromagnetism (except general relativity), and provides accurate descriptions for many previously unexplained phenomena such as black body radiation and stable electron orbits.The effects of quantum mechanics are typically not observable on macroscopic scales, but become evident at the atomic and subatomic level.
Contents [hide]
1 Overview
2 History
3 Relativity and quantum mechanics
4 Attempts at a unified theory
5 Quantum mechanics and classical physics
6 Theory
6.1 Mathematical formulation
6.2 Interactions with other scientific theories
7 Applications
8 Philosophical consequences
9 See also
10 References
11 Notes
12 External links
12.1 General
12.2 Course material
12.3 FAQs
12.4 Media
12.5 Philosophy
[edit] Overview
The word ?quantum? (Latin, ?how much?) in quantum mechanics refers to a discrete unit that quantum theory assigns to certain physical quantities, such as the energy of an atom at rest (see Figure 1, at right). The discovery that waves have discrete energy packets (called quanta) that behave in a manner similar to particles led to the branch of physics that deals with atomic and subatomic systems which we today call quantum mechanics. It is the underlying mathematical framework of many fields of physics and chemistry, including condensed matter physics, solid-state physics, atomic physics, molecular physics, computational chemistry, quantum chemistry, particle physics, and nuclear physics. The foundations of quantum mechanics were established during the first half of the twentieth century by Werner Heisenberg, Max Planck, Louis de Broglie, Niels Bohr, Erwin Schr?dinger, Max Born, John von Neumann, Paul Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli, Richard Feynman and others. Some fundamental aspects of the theory are still actively studied.
It is currently necessary to use quantum mechanics to understand the behavior of systems at atomic length scales and smaller. For example, if Newtonian mechanics governed the workings of an atom, electrons would rapidly travel towards and collide with the nucleus. However, in the natural world the electrons normally remain in an unknown orbital path around the nucleus, defying classical electromagnetism.
Quantum mechanics was initially developed to provide a better explanation of the atom, especially the spectra of light emitted by different atomic species. The quantum theory of the atom developed as an explanation for the electron's staying in its orbital, which could not be explained by Newton's laws of motion and by Maxwell's laws of classical electromagnetism.
In the formalism of quantum mechanics, the state of a system at a given time is described by a complex wave function (sometimes referred to as orbitals in the case of atomic electrons), and more generally, elements of a complex vector space. This abstract mathematical object allows for the calculation of probabilities of outcomes of concrete experiments. For example, it allows one to compute the probability of finding an electron in a particular region around the nucleus at a particular time. Contrary to classical mechanics, one can never make simultaneous predictions of conjugate variables, such as position and momentum, with arbitrary accuracy. For instance, electrons may be considered to be located somewhere within a region of space, but with their exact positions being unknown. Contours of constant probability, often referred to as ?clouds? may be drawn around the nucleus of an atom to conceptualize where the electron might be located with the most probability. It should be stressed that the electron itself is not spread out over such cloud regions. It is either in a particular region of space, or it is not. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle quantifies the inability to precisely locate the particle.
The other exemplar that led to quantum mechanics was the study of electromagnetic waves such as light. When it was found in 1900 by Max Planck that the energy of waves could be described as consisting of small packets or quanta, Albert Einstein exploited this idea to show that an electromagnetic wave such as light could be described by a particle called the photon with a discrete energy dependent on its frequency. This led to a theory of unity between subatomic particles and electromagnetic waves called wave?particle duality in which particles and waves were neither one nor the other, but had certain properties of both. While quantum mechanics describes the world of the very small, it also is needed to explain certain ?macroscopic quantum systems? such as superconductors and superfluids.
Broadly speaking, quantum mechanics incorporates four classes of phenomena that classical physics cannot account for: (i) the quantization (discretization) of certain physical quantities, (ii) wave-particle duality, (iii) the uncertainty principle, and (iv) quantum entanglement. Each of these phenomena is described in detail in subsequent sections.
[edit] History
Main article: History of quantum mechanics
The history of quantum mechanics began essentially with the 1838 discovery of cathode rays by Michael Faraday, the 1859 statement of the black body radiation problem by Gustav Kirchhoff, the 1877 suggestion by Ludwig Boltzmann that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete, and the 1900 quantum hypothesis by Max Planck that any energy is radiated and absorbed in quantities divisible by discrete ?energy elements? ε such that each of these energy elements is proportional to the frequency ν with which they each individually radiate energy, as defined by the following formula:
where h is a numerical value called Planck?s Constant. Although Planck insisted that this was simply an aspect of the absorption and radiation of energy and had nothing to do with the physical reality of the energy itself, in 1905, to explain the photoelectric effect (1839), i.e. that shining light on certain materials can function to eject electrons from the material, Albert Einstein postulated, as based on Planck?s quantum hypothesis, that light itself consists of individual quanta, which later came to be called photons (1926). From Einstein's simple postulation was borne a flurry of debating, theorizing and testing, and thus, the entire field of quantum physics.
[edit] Relativity and quantum mechanics
The modern world of physics is notably founded on two tested and demonstrably sound theories of general relativity and quantum mechanics ?theories which appear to contradict one another. The defining postulates of both Einstein's theory of relativity and quantum theory are indisputably supported by rigorous and repeated empirical evidence. However, while they do not directly contradict each other theoretically (at least with regard to primary claims), they are resistant to being incorporated within one cohesive model.
Einstein himself is well known for rejecting some of the claims of quantum mechanics. While clearly inventive in this field, he did not accept the more exotic corollaries of quantum mechanics, such as the lack of deterministic causality and the assertion that a single subatomic particle can occupy numerous areas of space at one time. He also noticed some of the more exotic consequences of entanglement and used them to formulate the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox, in the hope of showing that quantum mechanics has unacceptable implications. The Einstein-Podolsky- Rosen paradox shows that measuring the state of one particle can instantaneously change the state of its entangled partner, although the two particles can be an arbitrary distance apart. However, this effect does not violate causality, since no transfer of information is possible.
There do exist quantum theories which incorporate special relativity?for example, quantum electrodynamics (QED), which is currently the most accurately tested physical theory [1]?and these lie at the very heart of modern particle physics. Gravity is negligible in many areas of particle physics, so that unification between general relativity and quantum mechanics is not an urgent issue in those applications. However, the lack of a correct theory of quantum gravity is an important issue in cosmology.
[edit] Attempts at a unified theory
Main article: Quantum gravity
Inconsistencies arise when one tries to join the quantum laws with general relativity, a more elaborate description of spacetime which incorporates gravitation. Resolving these inconsistencies has been a major goal of twentieth- and twenty-first-century physics. Many prominent physicists, including Stephen Hawking, have labored in the attempt to discover a "Grand Unification Theory" that combines not only different models of subatomic physics, but also derives the universe's four forces?the strong force, electromagnetism, weak force, and gravity? from a single force or phenomenon.
[edit] Quantum mechanics and classical physics
Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified experimentally to a very high degree of accuracy. Thus, the current logic of correspondence principle between classical and quantum mechanics is that all objects obey laws of quantum mechanics, and classical mechanics is just a quantum mechanics of large systems (or a statistical quantum mechanics of a large collection of particles). Laws of classical mechanics thus follow from laws of quantum mechanics at the limit of large systems or large quantum numbers.
Many ?macroscopic? properties of ?classic? systems are direct consequences of quantum behavior of its parts. For example, stability of bulk matter (which consists of atoms and molecules which would quickly collapse under electric forces alone), rigidity of this matter, mechanical, thermal, chemical, optical and magnetic properties of this matter?they are all results of interaction of electric charges under the rules of quantum mechanics.
Because seemingly exotic behavior of matter posited by quantum mechanics and relativity theory become more apparent when dealing with extremely fast-moving or extremely tiny particles, the laws of classical ?Newtonian? physics still remain accurate in predicting the behavior of surrounding (?large?) objects?of the order of the size of large molecules and bigger.
Despite the proposal of many novel ideas, the unification of quantum mechanics?which reigns in the domain of the very small?and general relativity?a superb description of the very large?remains, tantalizingly, a future possibility. (See quantum gravity, string theory.)
[edit] Theory
There are numerous mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics. One of the oldest and most commonly used formulations is the transformation theory invented by Cambridge theoretical physicist Paul Dirac, which unifies and generalizes the two earliest formulations of quantum mechanics, matrix mechanics (invented by Werner Heisenberg)[2] and wave mechanics (invented by Erwin Schr?dinger).
In this formulation, the instantaneous state of a quantum system encodes the probabilities of its measurable properties, or "observables". Examples of observables include energy, position, momentum, and angular momentum. Observables can be either continuous (e.g., the position of a particle) or discrete (e.g., the energy of an electron bound to a hydrogen atom).
Generally, quantum mechanics does not assign definite values to observables. Instead, it makes predictions about probability distributions; that is, the probability of obtaining each of the possible outcomes from measuring an observable. Naturally, these probabilities will depend on the quantum state at the instant of the measurement. There are, however, certain states that are associated with a definite value of a particular observable. These are known as "eigenstates" of the observable ("eigen" can be roughly translated from German as inherent or as a characteristic). In the everyday world, it is natural and intuitive to think of everything being in an eigenstate of every observable. Everything appears to have a definite position, a definite momentum, and a definite time of occurrence. However, quantum mechanics does not pinpoint the exact values for the position or momentum of a certain particle in a given space in a finite time; rather, it only provides a range of probabilities of where that particle might be. Therefore, it became necessary to use different words for (a) the state of something having an uncertainty relation and (b) a state that has a definite value. The latter is called the "eigenstate" of the property being measured.
For example, consider a free particle. In quantum mechanics, there is wave-particle duality so the properties of the particle can be described as a wave. Therefore, its quantum state can be represented as a wave, of arbitrary shape and extending over all of space, called a wavefunction. The position and momentum of the particle are observables. The Uncertainty Principle of quantum mechanics states that both the position and the momentum cannot simultaneously be known with infinite precision at the same time. However, one can measure just the position alone of a moving free particle creating an eigenstate of position with a wavefunction that is very large at a particular position x, and zero everywhere else. If one performs a position measurement on such a wavefunction, the result x will be obtained with 100% probability. In other words, the position of the free particle will be known. This is called an eigenstate of position. If the particle is in an eigenstate of position then its momentum is completely unknown. An eigenstate of momentum, on the other hand, has the form of a plane wave. It can be shown that the wavelength is equal to h/p, where h is Planck's constant and p is the momentum of the eigenstate. If the particle is in an eigenstate of momentum then its position is completely blurred out.
Usually, a system will not be in an eigenstate of whatever observable we are interested in. However, if one measures the observable, the wavefunction will instantaneously be an eigenstate of that observable. This process is known as wavefunction collapse. It involves expanding the system under study to include the measurement device, so that a detailed quantum calculation would no longer be feasible and a classical description must be used. If one knows the wavefunction at the instant before the measurement, one will be able to compute the probability of collapsing into each of the possible eigenstates. For example, the free particle in the previous example will usually have a wavefunction that is a wave packet centered around some mean position x0, neither an eigenstate of position nor of momentum. When one measures the position of the particle, it is impossible to predict with certainty the result that we will obtain. It is probable, but not certain, that it will be near x0, where the amplitude of the wavefunction is large. After the measurement is performed, having obtained some result x, the wavefunction collapses into a position eigenstate centered at x.
Wave functions can change as time progresses. An equation known as the Schr?dinger equation describes how wave functions change in time, a role similar to Newton's second law in classical mechanics. The Schr?dinger equation, applied to the aforementioned example of the free particle, predicts that the center of a wave packet will move through space at a constant velocity, like a classical particle with no forces acting on it. However, the wave packet will also spread out as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more uncertain. This also has the effect of turning position eigenstates (which can be thought of as infinitely sharp wave packets) into broadened wave packets that are no longer position eigenstates.
Some wave functions produce probability distributions that are constant in time. Many systems that are treated dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such "static" wave functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcited atom is pictured classically as a particle moving in a circular trajectory around the atomic nucleus, whereas in quantum mechanics it is described by a static, spherically symmetric wavefunction surrounding the nucleus (Fig. 1). (Note that only the lowest angular momentum states, labeled s, are spherically symmetric).
The time evolution of wave functions is deterministic in the sense that, given a wavefunction at an initial time, it makes a definite prediction of what the wavefunction will be at any later time. During a measurement, the change of the wavefunction into another one is not deterministic, but rather unpredictable, i.e., random.
The probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics thus stems from the act of measurement. This is one of the most difficult aspects of quantum systems to understand. It was the central topic in the famous Bohr-Einstein debates, in which the two scientists attempted to clarify these fundamental principles by way of thought experiments. In the decades after the formulation of quantum mechanics, the question of what constitutes a "measurement" has been extensively studied. Interpretations of quantum mechanics have been formulated to do away with the concept of "wavefunction collapse"; see, for example, the relative state interpretation. The basic idea is that when a quantum system interacts with a measuring apparatus, their respective wavefunctions become entangled, so that the original quantum system ceases to exist as an independent entity. For details, see the article on measurement in quantum mechanics.
[edit] Mathematical formulation
Main article: Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics
See also: Quantum logic
In the mathematically rigorous formulation of quantum mechanics, developed by Paul Dirac and John von Neumann, the possible states of a quantum mechanical system are represented by unit vectors (called "state vectors") residing in a complex separable Hilbert space (variously called the "state space" or the "associated Hilbert space" of the system) well defined up to a complex number of norm 1 (the phase factor). In other words, the possible states are points in the projectivization of a Hilbert space. The exact nature of this Hilbert space is dependent on the system; for example, the state space for position and momentum states is the space of square-integrable functions, while the state space for the spin of a single proton is just the product of two complex planes. Each observable is represented by a densely defined Hermitian (or self-adjoint) linear operator acting on the state space. Each eigenstate of an observable corresponds to an eigenvector of the operator, and the associated eigenvalue corresponds to the value of the observable in that eigenstate. If the operator's spectrum is discrete, the observable can only attain those discrete eigenvalues.
The time evolution of a quantum state is described by the Schr?dinger equation, in which the Hamiltonian, the operator corresponding to the total energy of the system, generates time evolution.
The inner product between two state vectors is a complex number known as a probability amplitude. During a measurement, the probability that a system collapses from a given initial state to a particular eigenstate is given by the square of the absolute value of the probability amplitudes between the initial and final states. The possible results of a measurement are the eigenvalues of the operator - which explains the choice of Hermitian operators, for which all the eigenvalues are real. We can find the probability distribution of an observable in a given state by computing the spectral decomposition of the corresponding operator. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle is represented by the statement that the operators corresponding to certain observables do not commute.
The Schr?dinger equation acts on the entire probability amplitude, not merely its absolute value. Whereas the absolute value of the probability amplitude encodes information about probabilities, its phase encodes information about the interference between quantum states. This gives rise to the wave-like behavior of quantum states.
It turns out that analytic solutions of Schr?dinger's equation are only available for a small number of model Hamiltonians, of which the quantum harmonic oscillator, the particle in a box, the hydrogen-molecular ion and the hydrogen atom are the most important representatives. Even the helium atom, which contains just one more electron than hydrogen, defies all attempts at a fully analytic treatment. There exist several techniques for generating approximate solutions. For instance, in the method known as perturbation theory one uses the analytic results for a simple quantum mechanical model to generate results for a more complicated model related to the simple model by, for example, the addition of a weak potential energy. Another method is the "semi-classical equation of motion" approach, which applies to systems for which quantum mechanics produces weak deviations from classical behavior. The deviations can be calculated based on the classical motion. This approach is important for the field of quantum chaos.
An alternative formulation of quantum mechanics is Feynman's path integral formulation, in which a quantum-mechanical amplitude is considered as a sum over histories between initial and final states; this is the quantum-mechanical counterpart of action principles in classical mechanics.
[edit] Interactions with other scientific theories
The fundamental rules of quantum mechanics are very broad. They assert that the state space of a system is a Hilbert space and the observables are Hermitian operators acting on that space, but do not tell us which Hilbert space or which operators, or if it even exists. These must be chosen appropriately in order to obtain a quantitative description of a quantum system. An important guide for making these choices is the correspondence principle, which states that the predictions of quantum mechanics reduce to those of classical physics when a system moves to higher energies or equivalently, larger quantum numbers. In other words, classic mechanics is simply a quantum mechanics of large systems. This "high energy" limit is known as the classical or correspondence limit. One can therefore start from an established classical model of a particular system, and attempt to guess the underlying quantum model that gives rise to the classical model in the correspondence limit
Unsolved problems in physics: In the correspondence limit of quantum mechanics: Is there a preferred interpretation of quantum mechanics? How does the quantum description of reality, which includes elements such as the superposition of states and wavefunction collapse, give rise to the reality we perceive?When quantum mechanics was originally formulated, it was applied to models whose correspondence limit was non-relativistic classical mechanics. For instance, the well-known model of the quantum harmonic oscillator uses an explicitly non-relativistic expression for the kinetic energy of the oscillator, and is thus a quantum version of the classical harmonic oscillator.
Early attempts to merge quantum mechanics with special relativity involved the replacement of the Schr?dinger equation with a covariant equation such as the Klein-Gordon equation or the Dirac equation. While these theories were successful in explaining many experimental results, they had certain unsatisfactory qualities stemming from their neglect of the relativistic creation and annihilation of particles. A fully relativistic quantum theory required the development of quantum field theory, which applies quantization to a field rather than a fixed set of particles. The first complete quantum field theory, quantum electrodynamics, provides a fully quantum description of the electromagnetic interaction.
The full apparatus of quantum field theory is often unnecessary for describing electrodynamic systems. A simpler approach, one employed since the inception of quantum mechanics, is to treat charged particles as quantum mechanical objects being acted on by a classical electromagnetic field. For example, the elementary quantum model of the hydrogen atom describes the electric field of the hydrogen atom using a classical Coulomb potential. This "semi-classical" approach fails if quantum fluctuations in the electromagnetic field play an important role, such as in the emission of photons by charged particles.
Quantum field theories for the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force have been developed. The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is called quantum chromodynamics, and describes the interactions of the subnuclear particles: quarks and gluons. The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force were unified, in their quantized forms, into a single quantum field theory known as electroweak theory.
It has proven difficult to construct quantum models of gravity, the remaining fundamental force. Semi-classical approximations are workable, and have led to predictions such as Hawking radiation. However, the formulation of a complete theory of quantum gravity is hindered by apparent incompatibilities between general relativity, the most accurate theory of gravity currently known, and some of the fundamental assumptions of quantum theory. The resolution of these incompatibilities is an area of active research, and theories such as string theory are among the possible candidates for a future theory of quantum gravity.
[edit] Applications
Quantum mechanics has had enormous success in explaining many of the features of our world. The individual behaviour of the subatomic particles that make up all forms of matter?electrons, protons, neutrons, photons and others?can often only be satisfactorily described using quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics has strongly influenced string theory, a candidate for a theory of everything (see reductionism). It is also related to statistical mechanics.
Quantum mechanics is important for understanding how individual atoms combine covalently to form chemicals or molecules. The application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is known as quantum chemistry. (Relativistic) quantum mechanics can in principle mathematically describe most of chemistry. Quantum mechanics can provide quantitative insight into ionic and covalent bonding processes by explicitly showing which molecules are energetically favorable to which others, and by approximately how much. Most of the calculations performed in computational chemistry rely on quantum mechanics.
Much of modern technology operates at a scale where quantum effects are significant. Examples include the laser, the transistor, the electron microscope, and magnetic resonance imaging. The study of semiconductors led to the invention of the diode and the transistor, which are indispensable for modern electronics.
Researchers are currently seeking robust methods of directly manipulating quantum states. Efforts are being made to develop quantum cryptography, which will allow guaranteed secure transmission of information. A more distant goal is the development of quantum computers, which are expected to perform certain computational tasks exponentially faster than classical computers. Another active research topic is quantum teleportation, which deals with techniques to transmit quantum states over arbitrary distances.
In many devices, even the simple light switch, quantum tunneling is vital, as otherwise the electrons in the electric current could not penetrate the potential barrier made up, in the case of the light switch, of a layer of oxide.
[edit] Philosophical consequences
Main article: Interpretation of quantum mechanics
Since its inception, the many counter-intuitive results of quantum mechanics have provoked strong philosophical debate and many interpretations. Even fundamental issues such as Max Born's basic rules concerning probability amplitudes and probability distributions took decades to be appreciated.
The Copenhagen interpretation, due largely to the Danish theoretical physicist Niels Bohr, is the interpretation of quantum mechanics most widely accepted amongst physicists. According to it, the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics predictions cannot be explained in terms of some other deterministic theory, and does not simply reflect our limited knowledge. Quantum mechanics provides probabilistic results because the physical universe is itself probabilistic rather than deterministic.
Albert Einstein, himself one of the founders of quantum theory, disliked this loss of determinism in measurement. (Hence his famous quote "God does not play dice with the universe.") He held that there should be a local hidden variable theory underlying quantum mechanics and consequently the present theory was incomplete. He produced a series of objections to the theory, the most famous of which has become known as the EPR paradox. John Bell showed that the EPR paradox led to experimentally testable differences between quantum mechanics and local theories. Experiments have been taken as confirming that quantum mechanics is correct and the real world must be described in terms of nonlocal theories.
The writer C.S. Lewis viewed quantum mechanics as incomplete, because notions of indeterminism did not agree with his religious beliefs.[3] Lewis, a professor of English, was of the opinion that the Heisenberg uncertainty principle was more of an epistemic limitation than an indication of ontological indeterminacy, and in this respect believed similarly to many advocates of hidden variables theories. The Bohr-Einstein debates provide a vibrant critique of the Copenhagen Interpretation from an epistemological point of view.
The Everett many-worlds interpretation, formulated in 1956, holds that all the possibilities described by quantum theory simultaneously occur in a "multiverse" composed of mostly independent parallel universes. This is not accomplished by introducing some new axiom to quantum mechanics, but on the contrary by removing the axiom of the collapse of the wave packet: All the possible consistent states of the measured system and the measuring apparatus (including the observer) are present in a real physical (not just formally mathematical, as in other interpretations) quantum superposition. (Such a superposition of consistent state combinations of different systems is called an entangled state.) While the multiverse is deterministic, we perceive non-deterministic behavior governed by probabilities, because we can observe only the universe, i.e. the consistent state contribution to the mentioned superposition, we inhabit. Everett's interpretation is perfectly consistent with John Bell's experiments and makes them intuitively understandable. However, according to the theory of quantum decoherence, the parallel universes will never be accessible for us, making them physically meaningless. This inaccessibility can be understood as follows: once a measurement is done, the measured system becomes entangled with both the physicist who measured it and a huge number of other particles, some of which are photons flying away towards the other end of the universe; in order to prove that the wave function did not collapse one would have to bring all these particles back and measure them again, together with the system that was measured originally. This is completely impractical, but even if one can theoretically do this, it would destroy any evidence that the original measurement took place (including the physicist's memory).
[edit] See also
Interpretation of quantum mechanics
Many-worlds interpretation
Measurement in quantum mechanics
Photon dynamics in the double-slit experiment
Photon polarization
Quantum electrochemistry
Quantum chromodynamics
Quantum chemistry
Quantum computers
Quantum electronics
Quantum field theory
Quantum information
Quantum mind
Quantum thermodynamics
Theoretical and experimental justification for the Schr?dinger equation
Theoretical chemistry
Quasi-set theory
Quantum optics
[edit] References
P. A. M. Dirac, The Principles of Quantum Mechanics (1930) -- the beginning chapters provide a very clear and comprehensible introduction
David J. Griffiths, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, Prentice Hall, 1995. ISBN 0-13-124405-1 -- A standard undergraduate level text written in an accessible style.
Richard P. Feynman, Robert B. Leighton and Matthew Sands (1965). The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Addison-Wesley. Richard Feynman's original lectures (given at Caltech in early 1962) can also be downloaded as an MP3 file from www.audible.com [1]
Hugh Everett, Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics, Reviews of Modern Physics vol 29, (1957) pp 454-462.
Bryce DeWitt, R. Neill Graham, eds, The Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, Princeton Series in Physics, Princeton University Press (1973), ISBN 0-691-08131-X
Albert Messiah, Quantum Mechanics, English translation by G. M. Temmer of M?canique Quantique, 1966, John Wiley and Sons, vol. I, chapter IV, section III.
Richard P. Feynman, QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter -- a popular science book about quantum mechanics and quantum field theory that contains many enlightening insights that are interesting for the expert as well
Marvin Chester, Primer of Quantum Mechanics, 1987, John Wiley, N.Y. ISBN 0-486-42878-8
Hagen Kleinert, Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics, Statistics, Polymer Physics, and Financial Markets, 3th edition, World Scientific (Singapore, 2004) (also available online here)
George Mackey (2004). The mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-43517-2.
Griffiths, David J. (2004). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-805326-X.
Omn?s, Roland (1999). Understanding Quantum Mechanics. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00435-8.
J. von Neumann, Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, Princeton University Press, 1955.
H. Weyl, The Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics, Dover Publications 1950.
Max Jammer, "The Conceptual Development of Quantum Mechanics" (McGraw Hill Book Co., 1966)
Gunther Ludwig, "Wave Mechanics" (Pergamon Press, 1968) ISBN 0-08-203204-1
Albert Messiah, Quantum Mechanics (Vol. I), English translation from French by G. M. Temmer, fourth printing 1966, North Holland, John Wiley & Sons.
Eric R. Scerri, The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance, Oxford University Press, 2006. Considers the extent to which chemistry and especially the periodic system has been reduced to quantum mechanics. ISBN 0-19-530573-6
Jos? Croca (2003). Towards a Nonlinear Quantum Physics. World Scientific. ISBN 981-238-210-0.
[edit] Notes
^ http://latticeqcd.blogspot.com/2005/06/most-accurate-theory-we-have.html
^ Especially since Werner Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932 for the creation of quantum mechanics, the role of Max Born has been obfuscated. A 2005 biography of Born details his role as the creator of the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics. This was recognized in a paper by Heisenberg, in 1940, honoring Max Planck. See: Nancy Thorndike Greenspan, "The End of the Certain World: The Life and Science of Max Born" (Basic Books, 2005), pp. 124 - 128, and 285 - 286.
^ Does God Play Dice? Archived Lecture by Professor Steven Hawking, Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics (DAMTP) University of Caimbridge. Retrieved on 2007-09-07.
[edit] External links
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:
Quantum mechanicsWikimedia Commons has media related to:
Quantum mechanics
[edit] General
The Modern Revolution in Physics - an online textbook
J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson: A history of quantum mechanics
A Lazy Layman's Guide to Quantum Physics
Introduction to Quantum Theory at Quantiki
Quantum Physics Made Relatively Simple: three video lectures by Hans Bethe
Getting Started with Quantum an Essay for the Uninitiated
H is for h-bar
[edit] Course material
MIT OpenCourseWare: Chemistry. See 5.61, 5.73, and 5.74
MIT OpenCourseWare: Physics. See 8.04, 8.05, and 8.06.
Imperial College Quantum Mechanics Course to Download
Spark Notes - Quantum Physics
Lecture notes in Quantum Mechanics (comprehensive, with advanced topics)
Quantum Physics Online : interactive introduction to quantum mechanics (RS applets)
[edit] FAQs
Many-worlds or relative-state interpretation
Measurement in Quantum mechanics
A short FAQ on quantum resonances
[edit] Media
Everything you wanted to know about the quantum world ? archive of articles from New Scientist magazine.
Quantum Physics Research From ScienceDaily
"Quantum Trickery: Testing Einstein's Strangest Theory", The New York Times, December 27, 2005.
[edit] Philosophy
Quantum Mechanics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
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For a generally accessible and less technical introduction to the topic, see Introduction to quantum mechanics.
Quantum mechanics
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Quantum state ? Superposition
Interference ? Entanglement
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Double-slit experiment
Davisson-Germer experiment
Stern?Gerlach experiment
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[show]Equations
Schr?dinger equation
Pauli equation
Klein-Gordon equation
Dirac equation
[show]Advanced theories
Quantum field theory
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Quantum electrodynamics
Quantum chromodynamics
Quantum gravity
Feynman diagram
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Fig. 1: The wavefunctions of an electron in a hydrogen atom possessing definite energy (increasing downward: n = 1, 2, 3, ...) and angular momentum (increasing across: s, p, d,...). Brighter areas correspond to higher probability density for a position measurement. Wavefunctions like these are directly comparable to Chladni's figures of acoustic modes of vibration in classical physics and are indeed modes of oscillation as well: they possess a sharp energy and thus a sharp frequency. The angular momentum and energy are quantized, and only take on discrete values like those shown (as is the case for resonant frequencies in acoustics).In physics, quantum mechanics is the study of the relationship between energy quanta (radiation) and matter, in particular that between valence shell electrons and photons. Quantum mechanics is a fundamental branch of physics with wide applications in both experimental and theoretical physics. Quantum theory generalizes all classical theories, including mechanics, electromagnetism (except general relativity), and provides accurate descriptions for many previously unexplained phenomena such as black body radiation and stable electron orbits.The effects of quantum mechanics are typically not observable on macroscopic scales, but become evident at the atomic and subatomic level.
Contents [hide]
1 Overview
2 History
3 Relativity and quantum mechanics
4 Attempts at a unified theory
5 Quantum mechanics and classical physics
6 Theory
6.1 Mathematical formulation
6.2 Interactions with other scientific theories
7 Applications
8 Philosophical consequences
9 See also
10 References
11 Notes
12 External links
12.1 General
12.2 Course material
12.3 FAQs
12.4 Media
12.5 Philosophy
[edit] Overview
The word ?quantum? (Latin, ?how much?) in quantum mechanics refers to a discrete unit that quantum theory assigns to certain physical quantities, such as the energy of an atom at rest (see Figure 1, at right). The discovery that waves have discrete energy packets (called quanta) that behave in a manner similar to particles led to the branch of physics that deals with atomic and subatomic systems which we today call quantum mechanics. It is the underlying mathematical framework of many fields of physics and chemistry, including condensed matter physics, solid-state physics, atomic physics, molecular physics, computational chemistry, quantum chemistry, particle physics, and nuclear physics. The foundations of quantum mechanics were established during the first half of the twentieth century by Werner Heisenberg, Max Planck, Louis de Broglie, Niels Bohr, Erwin Schr?dinger, Max Born, John von Neumann, Paul Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli, Richard Feynman and others. Some fundamental aspects of the theory are still actively studied.
It is currently necessary to use quantum mechanics to understand the behavior of systems at atomic length scales and smaller. For example, if Newtonian mechanics governed the workings of an atom, electrons would rapidly travel towards and collide with the nucleus. However, in the natural world the electrons normally remain in an unknown orbital path around the nucleus, defying classical electromagnetism.
Quantum mechanics was initially developed to provide a better explanation of the atom, especially the spectra of light emitted by different atomic species. The quantum theory of the atom developed as an explanation for the electron's staying in its orbital, which could not be explained by Newton's laws of motion and by Maxwell's laws of classical electromagnetism.
In the formalism of quantum mechanics, the state of a system at a given time is described by a complex wave function (sometimes referred to as orbitals in the case of atomic electrons), and more generally, elements of a complex vector space. This abstract mathematical object allows for the calculation of probabilities of outcomes of concrete experiments. For example, it allows one to compute the probability of finding an electron in a particular region around the nucleus at a particular time. Contrary to classical mechanics, one can never make simultaneous predictions of conjugate variables, such as position and momentum, with arbitrary accuracy. For instance, electrons may be considered to be located somewhere within a region of space, but with their exact positions being unknown. Contours of constant probability, often referred to as ?clouds? may be drawn around the nucleus of an atom to conceptualize where the electron might be located with the most probability. It should be stressed that the electron itself is not spread out over such cloud regions. It is either in a particular region of space, or it is not. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle quantifies the inability to precisely locate the particle.
The other exemplar that led to quantum mechanics was the study of electromagnetic waves such as light. When it was found in 1900 by Max Planck that the energy of waves could be described as consisting of small packets or quanta, Albert Einstein exploited this idea to show that an electromagnetic wave such as light could be described by a particle called the photon with a discrete energy dependent on its frequency. This led to a theory of unity between subatomic particles and electromagnetic waves called wave?particle duality in which particles and waves were neither one nor the other, but had certain properties of both. While quantum mechanics describes the world of the very small, it also is needed to explain certain ?macroscopic quantum systems? such as superconductors and superfluids.
Broadly speaking, quantum mechanics incorporates four classes of phenomena that classical physics cannot account for: (i) the quantization (discretization) of certain physical quantities, (ii) wave-particle duality, (iii) the uncertainty principle, and (iv) quantum entanglement. Each of these phenomena is described in detail in subsequent sections.
[edit] History
Main article: History of quantum mechanics
The history of quantum mechanics began essentially with the 1838 discovery of cathode rays by Michael Faraday, the 1859 statement of the black body radiation problem by Gustav Kirchhoff, the 1877 suggestion by Ludwig Boltzmann that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete, and the 1900 quantum hypothesis by Max Planck that any energy is radiated and absorbed in quantities divisible by discrete ?energy elements? ε such that each of these energy elements is proportional to the frequency ν with which they each individually radiate energy, as defined by the following formula:
where h is a numerical value called Planck?s Constant. Although Planck insisted that this was simply an aspect of the absorption and radiation of energy and had nothing to do with the physical reality of the energy itself, in 1905, to explain the photoelectric effect (1839), i.e. that shining light on certain materials can function to eject electrons from the material, Albert Einstein postulated, as based on Planck?s quantum hypothesis, that light itself consists of individual quanta, which later came to be called photons (1926). From Einstein's simple postulation was borne a flurry of debating, theorizing and testing, and thus, the entire field of quantum physics.
[edit] Relativity and quantum mechanics
The modern world of physics is notably founded on two tested and demonstrably sound theories of general relativity and quantum mechanics ?theories which appear to contradict one another. The defining postulates of both Einstein's theory of relativity and quantum theory are indisputably supported by rigorous and repeated empirical evidence. However, while they do not directly contradict each other theoretically (at least with regard to primary claims), they are resistant to being incorporated within one cohesive model.
Einstein himself is well known for rejecting some of the claims of quantum mechanics. While clearly inventive in this field, he did not accept the more exotic corollaries of quantum mechanics, such as the lack of deterministic causality and the assertion that a single subatomic particle can occupy numerous areas of space at one time. He also noticed some of the more exotic consequences of entanglement and used them to formulate the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox, in the hope of showing that quantum mechanics has unacceptable implications. The Einstein-Podolsky- Rosen paradox shows that measuring the state of one particle can instantaneously change the state of its entangled partner, although the two particles can be an arbitrary distance apart. However, this effect does not violate causality, since no transfer of information is possible.
There do exist quantum theories which incorporate special relativity?for example, quantum electrodynamics (QED), which is currently the most accurately tested physical theory [1]?and these lie at the very heart of modern particle physics. Gravity is negligible in many areas of particle physics, so that unification between general relativity and quantum mechanics is not an urgent issue in those applications. However, the lack of a correct theory of quantum gravity is an important issue in cosmology.
[edit] Attempts at a unified theory
Main article: Quantum gravity
Inconsistencies arise when one tries to join the quantum laws with general relativity, a more elaborate description of spacetime which incorporates gravitation. Resolving these inconsistencies has been a major goal of twentieth- and twenty-first-century physics. Many prominent physicists, including Stephen Hawking, have labored in the attempt to discover a "Grand Unification Theory" that combines not only different models of subatomic physics, but also derives the universe's four forces?the strong force, electromagnetism, weak force, and gravity? from a single force or phenomenon.
[edit] Quantum mechanics and classical physics
Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified experimentally to a very high degree of accuracy. Thus, the current logic of correspondence principle between classical and quantum mechanics is that all objects obey laws of quantum mechanics, and classical mechanics is just a quantum mechanics of large systems (or a statistical quantum mechanics of a large collection of particles). Laws of classical mechanics thus follow from laws of quantum mechanics at the limit of large systems or large quantum numbers.
Many ?macroscopic? properties of ?classic? systems are direct consequences of quantum behavior of its parts. For example, stability of bulk matter (which consists of atoms and molecules which would quickly collapse under electric forces alone), rigidity of this matter, mechanical, thermal, chemical, optical and magnetic properties of this matter?they are all results of interaction of electric charges under the rules of quantum mechanics.
Because seemingly exotic behavior of matter posited by quantum mechanics and relativity theory become more apparent when dealing with extremely fast-moving or extremely tiny particles, the laws of classical ?Newtonian? physics still remain accurate in predicting the behavior of surrounding (?large?) objects?of the order of the size of large molecules and bigger.
Despite the proposal of many novel ideas, the unification of quantum mechanics?which reigns in the domain of the very small?and general relativity?a superb description of the very large?remains, tantalizingly, a future possibility. (See quantum gravity, string theory.)
[edit] Theory
There are numerous mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics. One of the oldest and most commonly used formulations is the transformation theory invented by Cambridge theoretical physicist Paul Dirac, which unifies and generalizes the two earliest formulations of quantum mechanics, matrix mechanics (invented by Werner Heisenberg)[2] and wave mechanics (invented by Erwin Schr?dinger).
In this formulation, the instantaneous state of a quantum system encodes the probabilities of its measurable properties, or "observables". Examples of observables include energy, position, momentum, and angular momentum. Observables can be either continuous (e.g., the position of a particle) or discrete (e.g., the energy of an electron bound to a hydrogen atom).
Generally, quantum mechanics does not assign definite values to observables. Instead, it makes predictions about probability distributions; that is, the probability of obtaining each of the possible outcomes from measuring an observable. Naturally, these probabilities will depend on the quantum state at the instant of the measurement. There are, however, certain states that are associated with a definite value of a particular observable. These are known as "eigenstates" of the observable ("eigen" can be roughly translated from German as inherent or as a characteristic). In the everyday world, it is natural and intuitive to think of everything being in an eigenstate of every observable. Everything appears to have a definite position, a definite momentum, and a definite time of occurrence. However, quantum mechanics does not pinpoint the exact values for the position or momentum of a certain particle in a given space in a finite time; rather, it only provides a range of probabilities of where that particle might be. Therefore, it became necessary to use different words for (a) the state of something having an uncertainty relation and (b) a state that has a definite value. The latter is called the "eigenstate" of the property being measured.
For example, consider a free particle. In quantum mechanics, there is wave-particle duality so the properties of the particle can be described as a wave. Therefore, its quantum state can be represented as a wave, of arbitrary shape and extending over all of space, called a wavefunction. The position and momentum of the particle are observables. The Uncertainty Principle of quantum mechanics states that both the position and the momentum cannot simultaneously be known with infinite precision at the same time. However, one can measure just the position alone of a moving free particle creating an eigenstate of position with a wavefunction that is very large at a particular position x, and zero everywhere else. If one performs a position measurement on such a wavefunction, the result x will be obtained with 100% probability. In other words, the position of the free particle will be known. This is called an eigenstate of position. If the particle is in an eigenstate of position then its momentum is completely unknown. An eigenstate of momentum, on the other hand, has the form of a plane wave. It can be shown that the wavelength is equal to h/p, where h is Planck's constant and p is the momentum of the eigenstate. If the particle is in an eigenstate of momentum then its position is completely blurred out.
Usually, a system will not be in an eigenstate of whatever observable we are interested in. However, if one measures the observable, the wavefunction will instantaneously be an eigenstate of that observable. This process is known as wavefunction collapse. It involves expanding the system under study to include the measurement device, so that a detailed quantum calculation would no longer be feasible and a classical description must be used. If one knows the wavefunction at the instant before the measurement, one will be able to compute the probability of collapsing into each of the possible eigenstates. For example, the free particle in the previous example will usually have a wavefunction that is a wave packet centered around some mean position x0, neither an eigenstate of position nor of momentum. When one measures the position of the particle, it is impossible to predict with certainty the result that we will obtain. It is probable, but not certain, that it will be near x0, where the amplitude of the wavefunction is large. After the measurement is performed, having obtained some result x, the wavefunction collapses into a position eigenstate centered at x.
Wave functions can change as time progresses. An equation known as the Schr?dinger equation describes how wave functions change in time, a role similar to Newton's second law in classical mechanics. The Schr?dinger equation, applied to the aforementioned example of the free particle, predicts that the center of a wave packet will move through space at a constant velocity, like a classical particle with no forces acting on it. However, the wave packet will also spread out as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more uncertain. This also has the effect of turning position eigenstates (which can be thought of as infinitely sharp wave packets) into broadened wave packets that are no longer position eigenstates.
Some wave functions produce probability distributions that are constant in time. Many systems that are treated dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such "static" wave functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcited atom is pictured classically as a particle moving in a circular trajectory around the atomic nucleus, whereas in quantum mechanics it is described by a static, spherically symmetric wavefunction surrounding the nucleus (Fig. 1). (Note that only the lowest angular momentum states, labeled s, are spherically symmetric).
The time evolution of wave functions is deterministic in the sense that, given a wavefunction at an initial time, it makes a definite prediction of what the wavefunction will be at any later time. During a measurement, the change of the wavefunction into another one is not deterministic, but rather unpredictable, i.e., random.
The probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics thus stems from the act of measurement. This is one of the most difficult aspects of quantum systems to understand. It was the central topic in the famous Bohr-Einstein debates, in which the two scientists attempted to clarify these fundamental principles by way of thought experiments. In the decades after the formulation of quantum mechanics, the question of what constitutes a "measurement" has been extensively studied. Interpretations of quantum mechanics have been formulated to do away with the concept of "wavefunction collapse"; see, for example, the relative state interpretation. The basic idea is that when a quantum system interacts with a measuring apparatus, their respective wavefunctions become entangled, so that the original quantum system ceases to exist as an independent entity. For details, see the article on measurement in quantum mechanics.
[edit] Mathematical formulation
Main article: Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics
See also: Quantum logic
In the mathematically rigorous formulation of quantum mechanics, developed by Paul Dirac and John von Neumann, the possible states of a quantum mechanical system are represented by unit vectors (called "state vectors") residing in a complex separable Hilbert space (variously called the "state space" or the "associated Hilbert space" of the system) well defined up to a complex number of norm 1 (the phase factor). In other words, the possible states are points in the projectivization of a Hilbert space. The exact nature of this Hilbert space is dependent on the system; for example, the state space for position and momentum states is the space of square-integrable functions, while the state space for the spin of a single proton is just the product of two complex planes. Each observable is represented by a densely defined Hermitian (or self-adjoint) linear operator acting on the state space. Each eigenstate of an observable corresponds to an eigenvector of the operator, and the associated eigenvalue corresponds to the value of the observable in that eigenstate. If the operator's spectrum is discrete, the observable can only attain those discrete eigenvalues.
The time evolution of a quantum state is described by the Schr?dinger equation, in which the Hamiltonian, the operator corresponding to the total energy of the system, generates time evolution.
The inner product between two state vectors is a complex number known as a probability amplitude. During a measurement, the probability that a system collapses from a given initial state to a particular eigenstate is given by the square of the absolute value of the probability amplitudes between the initial and final states. The possible results of a measurement are the eigenvalues of the operator - which explains the choice of Hermitian operators, for which all the eigenvalues are real. We can find the probability distribution of an observable in a given state by computing the spectral decomposition of the corresponding operator. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle is represented by the statement that the operators corresponding to certain observables do not commute.
The Schr?dinger equation acts on the entire probability amplitude, not merely its absolute value. Whereas the absolute value of the probability amplitude encodes information about probabilities, its phase encodes information about the interference between quantum states. This gives rise to the wave-like behavior of quantum states.
It turns out that analytic solutions of Schr?dinger's equation are only available for a small number of model Hamiltonians, of which the quantum harmonic oscillator, the particle in a box, the hydrogen-molecular ion and the hydrogen atom are the most important representatives. Even the helium atom, which contains just one more electron than hydrogen, defies all attempts at a fully analytic treatment. There exist several techniques for generating approximate solutions. For instance, in the method known as perturbation theory one uses the analytic results for a simple quantum mechanical model to generate results for a more complicated model related to the simple model by, for example, the addition of a weak potential energy. Another method is the "semi-classical equation of motion" approach, which applies to systems for which quantum mechanics produces weak deviations from classical behavior. The deviations can be calculated based on the classical motion. This approach is important for the field of quantum chaos.
An alternative formulation of quantum mechanics is Feynman's path integral formulation, in which a quantum-mechanical amplitude is considered as a sum over histories between initial and final states; this is the quantum-mechanical counterpart of action principles in classical mechanics.
[edit] Interactions with other scientific theories
The fundamental rules of quantum mechanics are very broad. They assert that the state space of a system is a Hilbert space and the observables are Hermitian operators acting on that space, but do not tell us which Hilbert space or which operators, or if it even exists. These must be chosen appropriately in order to obtain a quantitative description of a quantum system. An important guide for making these choices is the correspondence principle, which states that the predictions of quantum mechanics reduce to those of classical physics when a system moves to higher energies or equivalently, larger quantum numbers. In other words, classic mechanics is simply a quantum mechanics of large systems. This "high energy" limit is known as the classical or correspondence limit. One can therefore start from an established classical model of a particular system, and attempt to guess the underlying quantum model that gives rise to the classical model in the correspondence limit
Unsolved problems in physics: In the correspondence limit of quantum mechanics: Is there a preferred interpretation of quantum mechanics? How does the quantum description of reality, which includes elements such as the superposition of states and wavefunction collapse, give rise to the reality we perceive?When quantum mechanics was originally formulated, it was applied to models whose correspondence limit was non-relativistic classical mechanics. For instance, the well-known model of the quantum harmonic oscillator uses an explicitly non-relativistic expression for the kinetic energy of the oscillator, and is thus a quantum version of the classical harmonic oscillator.
Early attempts to merge quantum mechanics with special relativity involved the replacement of the Schr?dinger equation with a covariant equation such as the Klein-Gordon equation or the Dirac equation. While these theories were successful in explaining many experimental results, they had certain unsatisfactory qualities stemming from their neglect of the relativistic creation and annihilation of particles. A fully relativistic quantum theory required the development of quantum field theory, which applies quantization to a field rather than a fixed set of particles. The first complete quantum field theory, quantum electrodynamics, provides a fully quantum description of the electromagnetic interaction.
The full apparatus of quantum field theory is often unnecessary for describing electrodynamic systems. A simpler approach, one employed since the inception of quantum mechanics, is to treat charged particles as quantum mechanical objects being acted on by a classical electromagnetic field. For example, the elementary quantum model of the hydrogen atom describes the electric field of the hydrogen atom using a classical Coulomb potential. This "semi-classical" approach fails if quantum fluctuations in the electromagnetic field play an important role, such as in the emission of photons by charged particles.
Quantum field theories for the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force have been developed. The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is called quantum chromodynamics, and describes the interactions of the subnuclear particles: quarks and gluons. The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force were unified, in their quantized forms, into a single quantum field theory known as electroweak theory.
It has proven difficult to construct quantum models of gravity, the remaining fundamental force. Semi-classical approximations are workable, and have led to predictions such as Hawking radiation. However, the formulation of a complete theory of quantum gravity is hindered by apparent incompatibilities between general relativity, the most accurate theory of gravity currently known, and some of the fundamental assumptions of quantum theory. The resolution of these incompatibilities is an area of active research, and theories such as string theory are among the possible candidates for a future theory of quantum gravity.
[edit] Applications
Quantum mechanics has had enormous success in explaining many of the features of our world. The individual behaviour of the subatomic particles that make up all forms of matter?electrons, protons, neutrons, photons and others?can often only be satisfactorily described using quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics has strongly influenced string theory, a candidate for a theory of everything (see reductionism). It is also related to statistical mechanics.
Quantum mechanics is important for understanding how individual atoms combine covalently to form chemicals or molecules. The application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is known as quantum chemistry. (Relativistic) quantum mechanics can in principle mathematically describe most of chemistry. Quantum mechanics can provide quantitative insight into ionic and covalent bonding processes by explicitly showing which molecules are energetically favorable to which others, and by approximately how much. Most of the calculations performed in computational chemistry rely on quantum mechanics.
Much of modern technology operates at a scale where quantum effects are significant. Examples include the laser, the transistor, the electron microscope, and magnetic resonance imaging. The study of semiconductors led to the invention of the diode and the transistor, which are indispensable for modern electronics.
Researchers are currently seeking robust methods of directly manipulating quantum states. Efforts are being made to develop quantum cryptography, which will allow guaranteed secure transmission of information. A more distant goal is the development of quantum computers, which are expected to perform certain computational tasks exponentially faster than classical computers. Another active research topic is quantum teleportation, which deals with techniques to transmit quantum states over arbitrary distances.
In many devices, even the simple light switch, quantum tunneling is vital, as otherwise the electrons in the electric current could not penetrate the potential barrier made up, in the case of the light switch, of a layer of oxide.
[edit] Philosophical consequences
Main article: Interpretation of quantum mechanics
Since its inception, the many counter-intuitive results of quantum mechanics have provoked strong philosophical debate and many interpretations. Even fundamental issues such as Max Born's basic rules concerning probability amplitudes and probability distributions took decades to be appreciated.
The Copenhagen interpretation, due largely to the Danish theoretical physicist Niels Bohr, is the interpretation of quantum mechanics most widely accepted amongst physicists. According to it, the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics predictions cannot be explained in terms of some other deterministic theory, and does not simply reflect our limited knowledge. Quantum mechanics provides probabilistic results because the physical universe is itself probabilistic rather than deterministic.
Albert Einstein, himself one of the founders of quantum theory, disliked this loss of determinism in measurement. (Hence his famous quote "God does not play dice with the universe.") He held that there should be a local hidden variable theory underlying quantum mechanics and consequently the present theory was incomplete. He produced a series of objections to the theory, the most famous of which has become known as the EPR paradox. John Bell showed that the EPR paradox led to experimentally testable differences between quantum mechanics and local theories. Experiments have been taken as confirming that quantum mechanics is correct and the real world must be described in terms of nonlocal theories.
The writer C.S. Lewis viewed quantum mechanics as incomplete, because notions of indeterminism did not agree with his religious beliefs.[3] Lewis, a professor of English, was of the opinion that the Heisenberg uncertainty principle was more of an epistemic limitation than an indication of ontological indeterminacy, and in this respect believed similarly to many advocates of hidden variables theories. The Bohr-Einstein debates provide a vibrant critique of the Copenhagen Interpretation from an epistemological point of view.
The Everett many-worlds interpretation, formulated in 1956, holds that all the possibilities described by quantum theory simultaneously occur in a "multiverse" composed of mostly independent parallel universes. This is not accomplished by introducing some new axiom to quantum mechanics, but on the contrary by removing the axiom of the collapse of the wave packet: All the possible consistent states of the measured system and the measuring apparatus (including the observer) are present in a real physical (not just formally mathematical, as in other interpretations) quantum superposition. (Such a superposition of consistent state combinations of different systems is called an entangled state.) While the multiverse is deterministic, we perceive non-deterministic behavior governed by probabilities, because we can observe only the universe, i.e. the consistent state contribution to the mentioned superposition, we inhabit. Everett's interpretation is perfectly consistent with John Bell's experiments and makes them intuitively understandable. However, according to the theory of quantum decoherence, the parallel universes will never be accessible for us, making them physically meaningless. This inaccessibility can be understood as follows: once a measurement is done, the measured system becomes entangled with both the physicist who measured it and a huge number of other particles, some of which are photons flying away towards the other end of the universe; in order to prove that the wave function did not collapse one would have to bring all these particles back and measure them again, together with the system that was measured originally. This is completely impractical, but even if one can theoretically do this, it would destroy any evidence that the original measurement took place (including the physicist's memory).
[edit] See also
Interpretation of quantum mechanics
Many-worlds interpretation
Measurement in quantum mechanics
Photon dynamics in the double-slit experiment
Photon polarization
Quantum electrochemistry
Quantum chromodynamics
Quantum chemistry
Quantum computers
Quantum electronics
Quantum field theory
Quantum information
Quantum mind
Quantum thermodynamics
Theoretical and experimental justification for the Schr?dinger equation
Theoretical chemistry
Quasi-set theory
Quantum optics
[edit] References
P. A. M. Dirac, The Principles of Quantum Mechanics (1930) -- the beginning chapters provide a very clear and comprehensible introduction
David J. Griffiths, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, Prentice Hall, 1995. ISBN 0-13-124405-1 -- A standard undergraduate level text written in an accessible style.
Richard P. Feynman, Robert B. Leighton and Matthew Sands (1965). The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Addison-Wesley. Richard Feynman's original lectures (given at Caltech in early 1962) can also be downloaded as an MP3 file from www.audible.com [1]
Hugh Everett, Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics, Reviews of Modern Physics vol 29, (1957) pp 454-462.
Bryce DeWitt, R. Neill Graham, eds, The Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, Princeton Series in Physics, Princeton University Press (1973), ISBN 0-691-08131-X
Albert Messiah, Quantum Mechanics, English translation by G. M. Temmer of M?canique Quantique, 1966, John Wiley and Sons, vol. I, chapter IV, section III.
Richard P. Feynman, QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter -- a popular science book about quantum mechanics and quantum field theory that contains many enlightening insights that are interesting for the expert as well
Marvin Chester, Primer of Quantum Mechanics, 1987, John Wiley, N.Y. ISBN 0-486-42878-8
Hagen Kleinert, Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics, Statistics, Polymer Physics, and Financial Markets, 3th edition, World Scientific (Singapore, 2004) (also available online here)
George Mackey (2004). The mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-43517-2.
Griffiths, David J. (2004). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-805326-X.
Omn?s, Roland (1999). Understanding Quantum Mechanics. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00435-8.
J. von Neumann, Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, Princeton University Press, 1955.
H. Weyl, The Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics, Dover Publications 1950.
Max Jammer, "The Conceptual Development of Quantum Mechanics" (McGraw Hill Book Co., 1966)
Gunther Ludwig, "Wave Mechanics" (Pergamon Press, 1968) ISBN 0-08-203204-1
Albert Messiah, Quantum Mechanics (Vol. I), English translation from French by G. M. Temmer, fourth printing 1966, North Holland, John Wiley & Sons.
Eric R. Scerri, The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance, Oxford University Press, 2006. Considers the extent to which chemistry and especially the periodic system has been reduced to quantum mechanics. ISBN 0-19-530573-6
Jos? Croca (2003). Towards a Nonlinear Quantum Physics. World Scientific. ISBN 981-238-210-0.
[edit] Notes
^ http://latticeqcd.blogspot.com/2005/06/most-accurate-theory-we-have.html
^ Especially since Werner Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932 for the creation of quantum mechanics, the role of Max Born has been obfuscated. A 2005 biography of Born details his role as the creator of the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics. This was recognized in a paper by Heisenberg, in 1940, honoring Max Planck. See: Nancy Thorndike Greenspan, "The End of the Certain World: The Life and Science of Max Born" (Basic Books, 2005), pp. 124 - 128, and 285 - 286.
^ Does God Play Dice? Archived Lecture by Professor Steven Hawking, Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics (DAMTP) University of Caimbridge. Retrieved on 2007-09-07.
[edit] External links
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:
Quantum mechanicsWikimedia Commons has media related to:
Quantum mechanics
[edit] General
The Modern Revolution in Physics - an online textbook
J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson: A history of quantum mechanics
A Lazy Layman's Guide to Quantum Physics
Introduction to Quantum Theory at Quantiki
Quantum Physics Made Relatively Simple: three video lectures by Hans Bethe
Getting Started with Quantum an Essay for the Uninitiated
H is for h-bar
[edit] Course material
MIT OpenCourseWare: Chemistry. See 5.61, 5.73, and 5.74
MIT OpenCourseWare: Physics. See 8.04, 8.05, and 8.06.
Imperial College Quantum Mechanics Course to Download
Spark Notes - Quantum Physics
Lecture notes in Quantum Mechanics (comprehensive, with advanced topics)
Quantum Physics Online : interactive introduction to quantum mechanics (RS applets)
[edit] FAQs
Many-worlds or relative-state interpretation
Measurement in Quantum mechanics
A short FAQ on quantum resonances
[edit] Media
Everything you wanted to know about the quantum world ? archive of articles from New Scientist magazine.
Quantum Physics Research From ScienceDaily
"Quantum Trickery: Testing Einstein's Strangest Theory", The New York Times, December 27, 2005.
[edit] Philosophy
Quantum Mechanics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Welcome to Hearts 4 Israel
These pages are developed and posted by me, Keith Sorrels, a retired Firefighter from northern California. I am not Jewish but, I have a love for the Jewish people and Israel. Why? It is because I have read and continue to study the Bible, which I believe is God's instructions on how mankind can restore our relationships with Him. In the Bible, God Himself has a special love for Israel and the Jewish people, he calls them the "apple of His eye" and He made several promises to them, most of which were unconditional. I owe a huge personal debt to the Jewish people because, without those Jewish scribes of old faithfully copying the scriptures, I would not have a Bible to read and I would not know the way of salvation that God has provided, instead of being full of hope, I would be hope-less or worse off, depending on a false hope.
What about you? Are you searching to restore yourself to God? It seems to me that most people go either two directions with this. 1. Many people have completely turned over the spiritual side of their lives to the "professionals", instead of going to the source themselves. Or, 2. Most people really don't care at all, they know that death is inevitable, but they ignore it like they ignore God's subtle attempts to get their attention. In the Bible, this condition is called a "hardened heart", hardened toward God. I recommend a third option, read the Bible yourself. Get an easy to read translation and consider reading the Gospel of John first and see if it speaks to your heart. If you are interested in reading something I put together about the three most important questions in life, click here. If you would like to read about the dive expedition I went on to the Red Sea, click here. On the expedition, we were looking for artifacts left over from the crossing of the Red Sea by the Children of Israel. The story of the crossing is in Exodus 14:16
Here is what God says to Israel in Jeremiah, this also applies to all people who may have a heart for God, and are tired of the "captivity of sin".
Jeremiah 29:11 -14 For I know the thoughts that I think toward you, says the LORD, thoughts of peace and not of evil, to give you a future and a hope. Then you will call upon Me and go and pray to Me, and I will listen to you. And you will seek Me and find Me, when you search for Me with all your heart. I will be found by you, says the LORD, and I will bring you back from your captivity; I will gather you from all the nations and from all the places where I have driven you, says the LORD, and I will bring you to the place from which I cause you to be carried away captive.
..................................................................
These pages are developed and posted by me, Keith Sorrels, a retired Firefighter from northern California. I am not Jewish but, I have a love for the Jewish people and Israel. Why? It is because I have read and continue to study the Bible, which I believe is God's instructions on how mankind can restore our relationships with Him. In the Bible, God Himself has a special love for Israel and the Jewish people, he calls them the "apple of His eye" and He made several promises to them, most of which were unconditional. I owe a huge personal debt to the Jewish people because, without those Jewish scribes of old faithfully copying the scriptures, I would not have a Bible to read and I would not know the way of salvation that God has provided, instead of being full of hope, I would be hope-less or worse off, depending on a false hope.
What about you? Are you searching to restore yourself to God? It seems to me that most people go either two directions with this. 1. Many people have completely turned over the spiritual side of their lives to the "professionals", instead of going to the source themselves. Or, 2. Most people really don't care at all, they know that death is inevitable, but they ignore it like they ignore God's subtle attempts to get their attention. In the Bible, this condition is called a "hardened heart", hardened toward God. I recommend a third option, read the Bible yourself. Get an easy to read translation and consider reading the Gospel of John first and see if it speaks to your heart. If you are interested in reading something I put together about the three most important questions in life, click here. If you would like to read about the dive expedition I went on to the Red Sea, click here. On the expedition, we were looking for artifacts left over from the crossing of the Red Sea by the Children of Israel. The story of the crossing is in Exodus 14:16
Here is what God says to Israel in Jeremiah, this also applies to all people who may have a heart for God, and are tired of the "captivity of sin".
Jeremiah 29:11 -14 For I know the thoughts that I think toward you, says the LORD, thoughts of peace and not of evil, to give you a future and a hope. Then you will call upon Me and go and pray to Me, and I will listen to you. And you will seek Me and find Me, when you search for Me with all your heart. I will be found by you, says the LORD, and I will bring you back from your captivity; I will gather you from all the nations and from all the places where I have driven you, says the LORD, and I will bring you to the place from which I cause you to be carried away captive.
..................................................................
Last edited:
Pablo Picasso
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"Picasso" redirects here. For other uses, see Picasso (disambiguation).
Pablo Picasso
Picasso (January 1962)
Birth name Pablo Diego Jos? Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno Mar?a de los Remedios Cipriano de la Sant?sima Trinidad Martyr Patricio Clito Ruiz y Picasso
Born October 25, 1881(1881-10-25)
M?laga, Spain
Died April 8, 1973 (aged 91)
Mougins, France
Nationality Spanish
Field Painting, Drawing, Sculpture, Printmaking, Ceramics
Training Jose Ru?z (father), Academy of Arts, Madrid
Movement Cubism
Famous works Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907)
Guernica (1937) The Weeping Woman (1937)
Pablo Ruiz Picasso (October 25, 1881 ? April 8, 1973), often referred to simply as Picasso, was a Spanish painter and sculptor. His full name is Pablo Diego Jos? Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno Mar?a de los Remedios Cipriano de la Sant?sima Trinidad Clito Ruiz y Picasso.[1] One of the most recognized figures in 20th century art, he is best known as the co-founder, along with Georges Braque, of cubism.
Contents [hide]
1 Biography
1.1 Personal life
1.2 Politics
2 Work
2.1 Before 1901
2.2 Blue Period
2.3 Rose Period
2.4 African-influenced Period
2.5 Analytic cubism
2.6 Synthetic cubism
2.7 Classicism and surrealism
2.8 Later works
3 Legacy
4 Awards
5 Children
6 Lists of works
7 References
7.1 Notes
7.2 Sources
8 See also
9 External links
9.1 Museums
9.2 Online galleries
9.3 Essays
Biography
Pablo Picasso was born in M?laga, Spain, the first child of Jos? Ruiz y Blasco and Mar?a Picasso y L?pez. He was christened with the names Pablo, Diego, Jos?, Francisco de Paula, Juan Nepomuceno, Maria de los Remedios, and Cipriano de la Sant?sima Trinidad.[2] Picasso's father was a painter whose specialty was the naturalistic depiction of birds and who for most of his life was also a professor of art at the School of Crafts and a curator of a local museum. The young Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age; according to his mother,[3] his first word was "piz," a shortening of l?piz, the Spanish word for pencil.[4] It was from his father that Picasso had his first formal academic art training, such as figure drawing and painting in oil. Although Picasso attended art schools throughout his childhood, often those where his father taught, he never finished his college-level course of study at the Academy of Arts (Academia de San Fernando) in Madrid, leaving after less than a year.
Pablo Picasso, Dora Maar au Chat, 1941,
Personal life
After studying art in Madrid, he made his first trip to Paris in 1900, the art capital of Europe. In Paris, he lived with Max Jacob (journalist and poet), who helped him learn French. Max slept at night and Picasso slept during the day as he worked at night. There were times of severe poverty, cold, and desperation. Much of his work had to be burned to keep the small room warm. In 1901, with his friend Soler, he founded the magazine Arte Joven in Madrid. The first edition was entirely illustrated by him. From that day, he started to simply sign his work Picasso, while before he signed Pablo Ruiz y Picasso.
In the early years of the 20th century, Picasso, still a struggling youth, divided his time between Barcelona and Paris, where in 1904, he began a long-term relationship with Fernande Olivier. It is she who appears in many of the Rose period paintings. After acquiring fame and some fortune, Picasso left Olivier for Marcelle Humbert, whom Picasso called Eva. Picasso included declarations of his love for Eva in many Cubist works.
In Paris, Picasso entertained a distinguished coterie of friends in the Montmartre and Montparnasse quarters, including Andr? Breton, poet Guillaume Apollinaire, and writer Gertrude Stein. Apollinaire was arrested on suspicion of stealing the Mona Lisa from the Louvre in 1911. Apollonaire pointed to his friend Picasso, who was also brought in for questioning, but both were later exonerated.[5]
He maintained a number of mistresses in addition to his wife or primary partner. Picasso was married twice and had four children by three women. In the summer of 1918, Picasso married Olga Khokhlova, a ballerina with Sergei Diaghilev's troupe, for whom Picasso was designing a ballet, Parade, in Rome; and they spent their honeymoon in the villa near Biarritz of the glamorous Chilean art patron Eugenia Err?zuriz. Khokhlova introduced Picasso to high society, formal dinner parties, and all the social niceties attendant on the life of the rich in 1920s Paris. The two had a son, Paulo, who would grow up to be a dissolute motorcycle racer and chauffeur to his father. Khokhlova's insistence on social propriety clashed with Picasso's bohemian tendencies and the two lived in a state of constant conflict. In 1927 Picasso met 17 year old Marie-Th?r?se Walter and began a secret affair with her. Picasso's marriage to Khokhlova soon ended in separation rather than divorce, as French law required an even division of property in the case of divorce, and Picasso did not want Khokhlova to have half his wealth. The two remained legally married until Khokhlova's death in 1955. Picasso carried on a long-standing affair with Marie-Th?r?se Walter and fathered a daughter, Maia, with her. Marie-Th?r?se lived in the vain hope that Picasso would one day marry her, and hanged herself four years after Picasso's death.
The photographer and painter Dora Maar was also a constant companion and lover of Picasso. The two were closest in the late 1930s and early 1940s and it was Maar who documented the painting of Guernica.
During the Second World War, Picasso remained in Paris while the Germans occupied the city. Picasso's artistic style did not fit the Nazi views of art, so he was not able to show his works during this time. Retreating to his studio, he continued to paint all the while. Although the Germans outlawed bronze casting in Paris, Picasso continued regardless, using bronze smuggled to him by the French resistance.
After the liberation of Paris in 1944, Picasso began to keep company with a young art student, Fran?oise Gilot. The two eventually became lovers, and had two children together, Claude and Paloma. Unique among Picasso's women, Gilot left Picasso in 1953, allegedly because of abusive treatment and infidelities. This came as a severe blow to Picasso.
He went through a difficult period after Gilot's departure, coming to terms with his advancing age and his perception that, now in his 70s, he was no longer attractive, but rather grotesque to young women. A number of ink drawings from this period explore this theme of the hideous old dwarf as buffoonish counterpoint to the beautiful young girl, including several from a six-week affair with Genevi?ve Laporte, who in June 2005 auctioned off the drawings Picasso made of her.
Picasso was not long in finding another lover, Jacqueline Roque. Roque worked at the Madoura Pottery in Vallauris on the French Riviera, where Picasso made and painted ceramics. The two remained together for the rest of Picasso's life, marrying in 1961. Their marriage was also the means of one last act of revenge against Gilot. Gilot had been seeking a legal means to legitimize her children with Picasso, Claude and Paloma. With Picasso's encouragement, she had arranged to divorce her then husband, Luc Simon, and marry Picasso to secure her children's rights. Picasso then secretly married Roque after Gilot had filed for divorce in order to exact his revenge for her leaving him.
Picasso had constructed a huge gothic structure and could afford large villas in the south of France, at Notre-dame-de-vie on the outskirts of Mougins, in the Provence-Alpes-C?te d'Azur. Although he was a celebrity, there was often as much interest in his personal life as his art.
In addition to his manifold artistic accomplishments, Picasso had a film career, including a cameo appearance in Jean Cocteau's Testament of Orpheus. Picasso always played himself in his film appearances. In 1955 he helped make the film Le Myst?re Picasso (The Mystery of Picasso) directed by Henri-Georges Clouzot.
Pablo Picasso died on April 8, 1973 in Mougins, France, while he and his wife Jacqueline entertained friends for dinner. His final words were "Drink to me, drink to my health, you know I can't drink any more."[6] He was interred at Castle Vauvenargues' park, in Vauvenargues, Bouches-du-Rh?ne. Jacqueline Roque prevented his children Claude and Paloma from attending the funeral.[7]
Politics
Picasso remained neutral during World War I, the Spanish Civil War and World War II, refusing to fight for any side or country. Picasso never commented on this but encouraged the idea that it was because he was a pacifist.[citation needed] Some of his contemporaries, including Braque, felt that this neutrality had more to do with cowardice than principle.[citation needed] As a Spanish citizen living in France, Picasso was under no compulsion to fight against the invading Germans in either World War. In the Spanish Civil War, service for Spaniards living abroad was optional and would have involved a voluntary return to the country to join either side. While Picasso expressed anger and condemnation of Francisco Franco and fascists through his art, he did not take up arms against them. He also remained aloof from the Catalan independence movement during his youth despite expressing general support and being friendly with activists within it.
In 1944 Picasso joined the French Communist Party, attended an international peace conference in Poland, and in 1950 received the Stalin Peace Prize from the Soviet government.[8] But party criticism of a portrait of Stalin as insufficiently realistic cooled Picasso's interest in communist politics, though he remained a loyal member of the Communist Party until his death.
In a 1945 interview with Jerome Seckler, Picasso declared: "I am a communist and my painting is a communist painting. But if I were a shoemaker, royalist or communist or anything else, I would not necessarily hammer my shoes in any special way to show my politics."[citation needed]
Work
Picasso's work is often categorized into periods. While the names of many of his later periods are debated, the most commonly accepted periods in his work are the Blue Period (1901?1904), the Rose Period (1905?1907), the African-influenced Period (1908?1909), Analytic Cubism (1909?1912), and Synthetic Cubism (1912?1919).
In 1939 - 40 the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, under its director Alfred Barr, a Picasso enthusiast, held a major and highly successful retrospective of his principal works up until that time. This exhibition lionized the artist, brought into full public view in America the scope of his artistry, and resulted in a reinterpretation of his work by contemporary art historians and scholars.[9]
Before 1901
Picasso's training under his father began before 1890. His progress can be traced in the collection of early works now held by the Museum Picasso in Barcelona, which provides one of the most comprehensive records extant of any major artist's beginnings.[10] During 1893 the juvenile quality of his earliest work falls away; by 1894 his career as a painter can be said to have begun.[11] The academic realism apparent in the works of the mid-1890s is well displayed in The First Communion (1896), a large composition that depicts his sister, Lola. In the same year, at the age of 14, he painted Portrait of Aunt Pepa, a vigorous and dramatic portrait that Juan-Eduardo Cirlot has called "without a doubt one of the greatest in the whole history of Spanish painting."[12]
In 1897 his realism became tinged with Symbolist influence, in a series of landscape paintings rendered in non naturalistic violet and green tones. What some call his Modernist period (1899-1900) followed. His exposure to the work of Rossetti, Steinlen, Toulouse-Lautrec and Edvard Munch, combined with his admiration for favorite old masters such as El Greco, led Picasso to a personal version of modernism in his works of this period.[13]
Blue Period
Pablo Picasso, Evocation (L'enterrement de Casagemas), 1901For more details on this topic, see Picasso's Blue Period.
Picasso's Blue Period (1901?1904) consists of somber paintings rendered in shades of blue and blue-green, only occasionally warmed by other colors. This period's starting point is uncertain; it may have begun in Spain in the spring of 1901, or in Paris in the second half of the year.[14] In his austere use of color and sometimes doleful subject matter?prostitutes and beggars are frequent subjects?Picasso was influenced by a trip through Spain and by the suicide of his friend Carlos Casagemas. Starting in autumn of 1901 he painted several posthumous portraits of Casagemas, culminating in the gloomy allegorical painting La Vie, painted in 1903 and now in the Cleveland Museum of Art.[15]
Pablo Picasso, Les Noces de Pierrette, 1905The same mood pervades the well-known etching The Frugal Repast (1904), which depicts a blind man and a sighted woman, both emaciated, seated at a nearly bare table. Blindness is a recurrent theme in Picasso's works of this period, also represented in The Blindman's Meal (1903, the Metropolitan Museum of Art) and in the portrait of Celestina (1903). Other frequent subjects are artists, acrobats and harlequins. The harlequin, a comedic character usually depicted in checkered patterned clothing, became a personal symbol for Picasso.
Rose Period
For more details on this topic, see Picasso's Rose Period.
The Rose Period (1905?1907) is characterized by a more cheery style with orange and pink colors, and again featuring many harlequins. Picasso met Fernande Olivier, a model for sculptors and artists, in Paris in 1904, and many of these paintings are influenced by his warm relationship with her, in addition to his increased exposure to French painting.
African-influenced Period
Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907For more details on this topic, see Picasso's African Period.
Picasso's African-influenced Period (1907?1909) begins with the two figures on the right in his painting, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, which were inspired by African artifacts. Formal ideas developed during this period lead directly into the Cubist period that follows.
Analytic cubism
For more details on this topic, see Analytic cubism.
Analytic cubism (1909?1912) is a style of painting Picasso developed along with Braque using monochrome brownish colours. Both artists took apart objects and "analyzed" them in terms of their shapes. Picasso and Braque's paintings at this time are very similar to each other.
Synthetic cubism
For more details on this topic, see Synthetic cubism.
Synthetic cubism (1912?1919) is a further development of Cubism in which cut paper fragments?often wallpaper or portions of newspaper pages?are pasted into compositions, marking the first use of collage in fine art.
Classicism and surrealism
For more details on this topic, see Classicism.
For more details on this topic, see surrealism.
Pablo Picasso, Guernica, 1937In the period following the upheaval of World War I Picasso produced work in a neoclassical style. This "return to order" is evident in the work of many European artists in the 1920s, including Derain, Giorgio de Chirico, and the artists of the New Objectivity movement. Picasso's paintings and drawings from this period frequently recall the work of Ingres.
During the 1930s, the minotaur replaced the harlequin as a motif which he used often in his work. His use of the minotaur came partly from his contact with the surrealists, who often used it as their symbol, and appears in Picasso's Guernica.[citation needed]
Arguably Picasso's most famous work is his depiction of the German bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War ? Guernica. This large canvas embodies for many the inhumanity, brutality and hopelessness of war.[citation needed] Asked to explain its symbolism, Picasso said, "It isn't up to the painter to define the symbols. Otherwise it would be better if he wrote them out in so many words! The public who look at the picture must interpret the symbols as they understand them."[16]
Guernica hung in New York's Museum of Modern Art for many years. In 1981 Guernica was returned to Spain and exhibited at the Cas?n del Buen Retiro. In 1992 the painting hung in Madrid's Reina Sof?a Museum when it opened.
Later works
Picasso was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the 3rd Sculpture International held at the Philadelphia Museum of Art in the summer of 1949. In the 1950s Picasso's style changed once again, as he took to producing reinterpretations of the art of the great masters. He made a series of works based on Velazquez's painting of Las Meninas. He also based paintings on works of art by Goya, Poussin, Manet, Courbet and Delacroix.
Picasso sculpture in Chicago.He was commissioned to make a maquette for a huge 50 foot high public sculpture to be built in Chicago, known usually as the Chicago Picasso. He approached the project with a great deal of enthusiasm, designing a sculpture which was ambiguous and somewhat controversial. What the figure represents is not known; it could be a bird, a horse, a woman or a totally abstract shape. The sculpture, one of the most recognizable landmarks in downtown Chicago, was unveiled in 1967. Picasso refused to be paid $100,000 for it, donating it to the people of the city.
Picasso's final works were a mixture of styles, his means of expression in constant flux until the end of his life. Devoting his full energies to his work, Picasso became more daring, his works more colourful and expressive, and from 1968 through 1971 he produced a torrent of paintings and hundreds of copperplate etchings. At the time these works were dismissed by most as pornographic fantasies of an impotent old man or the slapdash works of an artist who was past his prime. One long time admirer, Douglas Cooper, called them "the incoherent scribblings of a frenetic old man".[citation needed] Only later, after Picasso's death, when the rest of the art world had moved on from abstract expressionism, did the critical community come to see that Picasso had already discovered neo-expressionism and was, as so often before, ahead of his time.
Legacy
Picasso sculpture in Halmstad.At the time of his death many of his paintings were in his possession, as he had kept off the art market what he didn't need to sell. In addition, Picasso had a considerable collection of the work of other famous artists, some his contemporaries, such as Henri Matisse, with whom he had exchanged works. Since Picasso left no will, his death duties (estate tax) to the French state were paid in the form of his works and others from his collection. These works form the core of the immense and representative collection of the Mus?e Picasso in Paris. In 2003, relatives of Picasso inaugurated a museum dedicated to him in his birthplace, M?laga, Spain, the Museo Picasso M?laga.
The Museu Picasso in Barcelona features many of Picasso's early works, created while he was living in Spain, including many rarely seen works which reveal Picasso's firm grounding in classical techniques. The museum also holds many precise and detailed figure studies done in his youth under his father's tutelage, as well as the extensive collection of Jaime Sabart?s, Picasso's close friend from his Barcelona days who, for many years, was Picasso's personal secretary.
The film Surviving Picasso was made about Picasso in 1996, as seen through the eyes of Fran?oise Gilot. Anthony Hopkins played Picasso in the movie.
Some paintings by Picasso rank among the most expensive paintings in the world.
"Nude on a black armchair" - sold for USD $45.1 million in 1999 to Les Wexner, who then donated it to the Wexner Center for the Arts.
Les Noces de Pierrette - sold for more than USD $51 million in 1999.
Gar?on ? la pipe- sold for USD $104 million at Sotheby's on May 4, 2004, establishing a new price record.
Dora Maar au Chat - sold for USD $95.2 million at Sotheby's on May 3, 2006.[17]
Awards
Stalin Peace Prize (1950)
International Lenin Peace Prize (1962)
Children
Paulo (February 4, 1921 - June 5, 1975) (Born Paul Joseph Picasso) - with Olga Khokhlova
Maia (September 5, 1935 - ) (Born Maria de la Concepcion Picasso) - with Marie-Th?r?se Walter
Claude (May 15, 1947 -) (Born Claude Pierre Pablo Picasso) - with Fran?oise Gilot
Paloma (April 19, 1949 - ) (Born Anne Paloma Picasso) - with Fran?oise Gilot
Lists of works
Pablo Picasso, Le guitariste, 1910List of Picasso artworks 1889-1900
List of Picasso artworks 1901-1910
List of Picasso artworks 1911-1920
List of Picasso artworks 1921-1930
List of Picasso artworks 1931-1940
List of Picasso artworks 1941-1950
List of Picasso artworks 1951-1960
List of Picasso artworks 1961-1970
List of Picasso artworks 1971-1973
References
Notes
^ Biography of Picasso, retrieved on May 24 2007.
^ O'Brian, Patrick (1994). Picasso: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton, 14. ISBN 0-393-31107-4.
^ Gereon Becht-J?rdens, Peter M. Wehmeier (2003). Picasso und die christliche Ikonographie: Mutterbeziehung und k?nstlerische Position. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag. ISBN 3-496-01272-2.
^ Hughes, Robert. "Anatomy of a Minotaur", Time Magazine, 1971-11-01. Retrieved on 2007-08-23.
^ Time Magazine, STEALING THE MONA LISA, 1911. Consulted on August 15, 2007.
^ http://www.digital-karma.org/culture/quotes/famous-peoples-last-words accessed online August 15, 2007
^ [1],The Rich Die Richer and You Can too by By William D. Zabel, Published 1996 John Wiley and Sons, p.11. ISBN 0471155322 Accessed online August 15, 2007
^ Picasso's Party Line, ARTnews [2] Retrieved May 31, 2007.
^ The MoMA retrospective of 1939-40 - see Michael FitzGerald, Making Modernism: Picasso and the Creation of the Market for Twentieth-Century Art. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995. (pp.243-62)
^ Cirlot,1972, p.6
^ Cirlot, 1972, p. 14
^ Cirlot, 1972, p.37
^ Cirlot, 1972, p. 87-108.
^ Cirlot, 1972, p.127.
^ Wattenmaker and Distel, 1993, p. 304
^ http://www.pbs.org/treasuresoftheworld/guernica/gmain.html
^ Picasso portrait sells for $95.2 million. Retrieved on May 4, 2006.
Sources
The Museum of Modern Art. Pablo Picasso, a retrospective. Ed. William Rubin, chronology by Jane Fluegel. New York. 1980. ISBN 0-87070-519-9
Becht-J?rdens, Gereon; Wehmeier, Peter M. (2003). Picasso und die christliche Ikonographie. Mutterbeziehung und k?nstlerische Position. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag. ISBN 3-469-01272-2
Cirlot, Juan-Eduardo (1972). Picasso: birth of a genius. New York and Washington: Praeger.
Cowling, Elizabeth; Mundy, Jennifer (1990). On Classic Ground: Picasso, L?ger, de Chirico and the New Classicism 1910-1930. London: Tate Gallery. ISBN 1-85437-043-X
Fitzgerald, Michael C. Making Modernism: Picasso and the Creation of the Market for Twentieth-Century Art. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995.
Eugenio Fern?ndez Granell, Picasso's Guernica : the end of a Spanish era (Ann Arbor, Mich. : UMI Research Press, 1981) ISBN 0835712060 9780835712064 9780835712064 0835712060
Ledor, Kobi, MD. "A Guide to Collecting Picasso's Prints"
Mallen Enrique (2003). The Visual Grammar of Pablo Picasso. Berkeley Insights in Linguistics & Semiotics Series. Berlin: Peter Lang.
Mallen, Enrique (2005). La Sintaxis de la Carne: Pablo Picasso y Marie-Th?r?se Walter. Santiago de Chile: Red Internacional del Libro.
Picasso, Olivier Widmaier. (2004). Picasso: The Real Family Story. Prestel Publ. ISBN 3-7913-3149-3
Rubin, William, ed. (1980) Pablo Picasso, a retrospective. Chronology by Jane Fluegel. Museum of Modern Art|The Museum of Modern Art. New York. ISBN 0-87070-519-9
Wattenmaker, Richard J.; Distel, Anne, et al. (1993). Great French Paintings from the Barnes Foundation. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-679-40963-7
Nill, Raymond M. "A Visual Guide to Pablo Picasso's Works". New York: B&H Publishers, 1987.
See also
Light writing, a technique used by Picasso many years before it came into current (2007) vogue
List of most expensive paintings
Picasso museums
The Modern Lovers' song "Pablo Picasso"
Band on the Run, Paul McCartney's song
icasso's Last Words (Drink To Me).
External links
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:
Pablo PicassoWikimedia Commons has media related to:
Pablo PicassoA brief look at the genius of Picasso
On-Line Picasso Project: Comprehensive summary of his life and his work.
Pablo Picasso - Biography, Quotes & Paintings, retrieved June 14 2007.
Official website
Video decoding a Picasso Cubist still-life
Poems by Picasso in English translation from Samizdat (poetry magazine)
smARThistory: Still Life with Chair Caning
smARThistory: Portrait of Gertrude Stein
Pablo Picasso - Biography and paintings
Cubism, The Big Picture
Museums
Guggenheim Museum Biography
Hilo Art Museum, (Hilo Hawaii, USA)
Honolulu Academy of Arts
Metropolitan Museum of Arts, New York
Mus?e National Picasso (Paris, France)
Mus?e Picasso (Antibes, France)
Museo Picasso M?laga (M?laga, Spain)
Museu Picasso (Barcelona, Spain)
Museum Berggruen (Berlin, Germany)
Museum of Modern Art (MoMA)
National Gallery of Art list of paintings
Online galleries
Pablo Picasso's paintings in the Private Art Collection
Essays
Power and Tenderness in Men and in Picasso's 'Minotauromachy' by Chaim Koppelman
Federal Bureau of Investigation files: Summary of FBI investigation of Picasso
Pablo Picasso works and periods
Periods: Blue (1901?1904), Rose (1905?1907), African (1908?1909), Analytic cubism (1909?1912), Synthetic cubism (1912?1919)
List of works: 1889-1900, 1901-1910, 1911-1920, 1921-1930, 1931-1940, 1941-1950, 1951-1960, 1961-1970, 1971-1973
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Persondata
NAME Picasso, Pablo
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Pablo Ruiz y Picasso
SHORT DESCRIPTION Spanish painter and sculptor
DATE OF BIRTH October 25, 1881
PLACE OF BIRTH M?laga, Spain
DATE OF DEATH April 8, 1973
PLACE OF DEATH Mougins, France
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Picasso"
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Pablo Picasso
Picasso (January 1962)
Birth name Pablo Diego Jos? Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno Mar?a de los Remedios Cipriano de la Sant?sima Trinidad Martyr Patricio Clito Ruiz y Picasso
Born October 25, 1881(1881-10-25)
M?laga, Spain
Died April 8, 1973 (aged 91)
Mougins, France
Nationality Spanish
Field Painting, Drawing, Sculpture, Printmaking, Ceramics
Training Jose Ru?z (father), Academy of Arts, Madrid
Movement Cubism
Famous works Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907)
Guernica (1937) The Weeping Woman (1937)
Pablo Ruiz Picasso (October 25, 1881 ? April 8, 1973), often referred to simply as Picasso, was a Spanish painter and sculptor. His full name is Pablo Diego Jos? Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno Mar?a de los Remedios Cipriano de la Sant?sima Trinidad Clito Ruiz y Picasso.[1] One of the most recognized figures in 20th century art, he is best known as the co-founder, along with Georges Braque, of cubism.
Contents [hide]
1 Biography
1.1 Personal life
1.2 Politics
2 Work
2.1 Before 1901
2.2 Blue Period
2.3 Rose Period
2.4 African-influenced Period
2.5 Analytic cubism
2.6 Synthetic cubism
2.7 Classicism and surrealism
2.8 Later works
3 Legacy
4 Awards
5 Children
6 Lists of works
7 References
7.1 Notes
7.2 Sources
8 See also
9 External links
9.1 Museums
9.2 Online galleries
9.3 Essays
Biography
Pablo Picasso was born in M?laga, Spain, the first child of Jos? Ruiz y Blasco and Mar?a Picasso y L?pez. He was christened with the names Pablo, Diego, Jos?, Francisco de Paula, Juan Nepomuceno, Maria de los Remedios, and Cipriano de la Sant?sima Trinidad.[2] Picasso's father was a painter whose specialty was the naturalistic depiction of birds and who for most of his life was also a professor of art at the School of Crafts and a curator of a local museum. The young Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age; according to his mother,[3] his first word was "piz," a shortening of l?piz, the Spanish word for pencil.[4] It was from his father that Picasso had his first formal academic art training, such as figure drawing and painting in oil. Although Picasso attended art schools throughout his childhood, often those where his father taught, he never finished his college-level course of study at the Academy of Arts (Academia de San Fernando) in Madrid, leaving after less than a year.
Pablo Picasso, Dora Maar au Chat, 1941,
Personal life
After studying art in Madrid, he made his first trip to Paris in 1900, the art capital of Europe. In Paris, he lived with Max Jacob (journalist and poet), who helped him learn French. Max slept at night and Picasso slept during the day as he worked at night. There were times of severe poverty, cold, and desperation. Much of his work had to be burned to keep the small room warm. In 1901, with his friend Soler, he founded the magazine Arte Joven in Madrid. The first edition was entirely illustrated by him. From that day, he started to simply sign his work Picasso, while before he signed Pablo Ruiz y Picasso.
In the early years of the 20th century, Picasso, still a struggling youth, divided his time between Barcelona and Paris, where in 1904, he began a long-term relationship with Fernande Olivier. It is she who appears in many of the Rose period paintings. After acquiring fame and some fortune, Picasso left Olivier for Marcelle Humbert, whom Picasso called Eva. Picasso included declarations of his love for Eva in many Cubist works.
In Paris, Picasso entertained a distinguished coterie of friends in the Montmartre and Montparnasse quarters, including Andr? Breton, poet Guillaume Apollinaire, and writer Gertrude Stein. Apollinaire was arrested on suspicion of stealing the Mona Lisa from the Louvre in 1911. Apollonaire pointed to his friend Picasso, who was also brought in for questioning, but both were later exonerated.[5]
He maintained a number of mistresses in addition to his wife or primary partner. Picasso was married twice and had four children by three women. In the summer of 1918, Picasso married Olga Khokhlova, a ballerina with Sergei Diaghilev's troupe, for whom Picasso was designing a ballet, Parade, in Rome; and they spent their honeymoon in the villa near Biarritz of the glamorous Chilean art patron Eugenia Err?zuriz. Khokhlova introduced Picasso to high society, formal dinner parties, and all the social niceties attendant on the life of the rich in 1920s Paris. The two had a son, Paulo, who would grow up to be a dissolute motorcycle racer and chauffeur to his father. Khokhlova's insistence on social propriety clashed with Picasso's bohemian tendencies and the two lived in a state of constant conflict. In 1927 Picasso met 17 year old Marie-Th?r?se Walter and began a secret affair with her. Picasso's marriage to Khokhlova soon ended in separation rather than divorce, as French law required an even division of property in the case of divorce, and Picasso did not want Khokhlova to have half his wealth. The two remained legally married until Khokhlova's death in 1955. Picasso carried on a long-standing affair with Marie-Th?r?se Walter and fathered a daughter, Maia, with her. Marie-Th?r?se lived in the vain hope that Picasso would one day marry her, and hanged herself four years after Picasso's death.
The photographer and painter Dora Maar was also a constant companion and lover of Picasso. The two were closest in the late 1930s and early 1940s and it was Maar who documented the painting of Guernica.
During the Second World War, Picasso remained in Paris while the Germans occupied the city. Picasso's artistic style did not fit the Nazi views of art, so he was not able to show his works during this time. Retreating to his studio, he continued to paint all the while. Although the Germans outlawed bronze casting in Paris, Picasso continued regardless, using bronze smuggled to him by the French resistance.
After the liberation of Paris in 1944, Picasso began to keep company with a young art student, Fran?oise Gilot. The two eventually became lovers, and had two children together, Claude and Paloma. Unique among Picasso's women, Gilot left Picasso in 1953, allegedly because of abusive treatment and infidelities. This came as a severe blow to Picasso.
He went through a difficult period after Gilot's departure, coming to terms with his advancing age and his perception that, now in his 70s, he was no longer attractive, but rather grotesque to young women. A number of ink drawings from this period explore this theme of the hideous old dwarf as buffoonish counterpoint to the beautiful young girl, including several from a six-week affair with Genevi?ve Laporte, who in June 2005 auctioned off the drawings Picasso made of her.
Picasso was not long in finding another lover, Jacqueline Roque. Roque worked at the Madoura Pottery in Vallauris on the French Riviera, where Picasso made and painted ceramics. The two remained together for the rest of Picasso's life, marrying in 1961. Their marriage was also the means of one last act of revenge against Gilot. Gilot had been seeking a legal means to legitimize her children with Picasso, Claude and Paloma. With Picasso's encouragement, she had arranged to divorce her then husband, Luc Simon, and marry Picasso to secure her children's rights. Picasso then secretly married Roque after Gilot had filed for divorce in order to exact his revenge for her leaving him.
Picasso had constructed a huge gothic structure and could afford large villas in the south of France, at Notre-dame-de-vie on the outskirts of Mougins, in the Provence-Alpes-C?te d'Azur. Although he was a celebrity, there was often as much interest in his personal life as his art.
In addition to his manifold artistic accomplishments, Picasso had a film career, including a cameo appearance in Jean Cocteau's Testament of Orpheus. Picasso always played himself in his film appearances. In 1955 he helped make the film Le Myst?re Picasso (The Mystery of Picasso) directed by Henri-Georges Clouzot.
Pablo Picasso died on April 8, 1973 in Mougins, France, while he and his wife Jacqueline entertained friends for dinner. His final words were "Drink to me, drink to my health, you know I can't drink any more."[6] He was interred at Castle Vauvenargues' park, in Vauvenargues, Bouches-du-Rh?ne. Jacqueline Roque prevented his children Claude and Paloma from attending the funeral.[7]
Politics
Picasso remained neutral during World War I, the Spanish Civil War and World War II, refusing to fight for any side or country. Picasso never commented on this but encouraged the idea that it was because he was a pacifist.[citation needed] Some of his contemporaries, including Braque, felt that this neutrality had more to do with cowardice than principle.[citation needed] As a Spanish citizen living in France, Picasso was under no compulsion to fight against the invading Germans in either World War. In the Spanish Civil War, service for Spaniards living abroad was optional and would have involved a voluntary return to the country to join either side. While Picasso expressed anger and condemnation of Francisco Franco and fascists through his art, he did not take up arms against them. He also remained aloof from the Catalan independence movement during his youth despite expressing general support and being friendly with activists within it.
In 1944 Picasso joined the French Communist Party, attended an international peace conference in Poland, and in 1950 received the Stalin Peace Prize from the Soviet government.[8] But party criticism of a portrait of Stalin as insufficiently realistic cooled Picasso's interest in communist politics, though he remained a loyal member of the Communist Party until his death.
In a 1945 interview with Jerome Seckler, Picasso declared: "I am a communist and my painting is a communist painting. But if I were a shoemaker, royalist or communist or anything else, I would not necessarily hammer my shoes in any special way to show my politics."[citation needed]
Work
Picasso's work is often categorized into periods. While the names of many of his later periods are debated, the most commonly accepted periods in his work are the Blue Period (1901?1904), the Rose Period (1905?1907), the African-influenced Period (1908?1909), Analytic Cubism (1909?1912), and Synthetic Cubism (1912?1919).
In 1939 - 40 the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, under its director Alfred Barr, a Picasso enthusiast, held a major and highly successful retrospective of his principal works up until that time. This exhibition lionized the artist, brought into full public view in America the scope of his artistry, and resulted in a reinterpretation of his work by contemporary art historians and scholars.[9]
Before 1901
Picasso's training under his father began before 1890. His progress can be traced in the collection of early works now held by the Museum Picasso in Barcelona, which provides one of the most comprehensive records extant of any major artist's beginnings.[10] During 1893 the juvenile quality of his earliest work falls away; by 1894 his career as a painter can be said to have begun.[11] The academic realism apparent in the works of the mid-1890s is well displayed in The First Communion (1896), a large composition that depicts his sister, Lola. In the same year, at the age of 14, he painted Portrait of Aunt Pepa, a vigorous and dramatic portrait that Juan-Eduardo Cirlot has called "without a doubt one of the greatest in the whole history of Spanish painting."[12]
In 1897 his realism became tinged with Symbolist influence, in a series of landscape paintings rendered in non naturalistic violet and green tones. What some call his Modernist period (1899-1900) followed. His exposure to the work of Rossetti, Steinlen, Toulouse-Lautrec and Edvard Munch, combined with his admiration for favorite old masters such as El Greco, led Picasso to a personal version of modernism in his works of this period.[13]
Blue Period
Pablo Picasso, Evocation (L'enterrement de Casagemas), 1901For more details on this topic, see Picasso's Blue Period.
Picasso's Blue Period (1901?1904) consists of somber paintings rendered in shades of blue and blue-green, only occasionally warmed by other colors. This period's starting point is uncertain; it may have begun in Spain in the spring of 1901, or in Paris in the second half of the year.[14] In his austere use of color and sometimes doleful subject matter?prostitutes and beggars are frequent subjects?Picasso was influenced by a trip through Spain and by the suicide of his friend Carlos Casagemas. Starting in autumn of 1901 he painted several posthumous portraits of Casagemas, culminating in the gloomy allegorical painting La Vie, painted in 1903 and now in the Cleveland Museum of Art.[15]
Pablo Picasso, Les Noces de Pierrette, 1905The same mood pervades the well-known etching The Frugal Repast (1904), which depicts a blind man and a sighted woman, both emaciated, seated at a nearly bare table. Blindness is a recurrent theme in Picasso's works of this period, also represented in The Blindman's Meal (1903, the Metropolitan Museum of Art) and in the portrait of Celestina (1903). Other frequent subjects are artists, acrobats and harlequins. The harlequin, a comedic character usually depicted in checkered patterned clothing, became a personal symbol for Picasso.
Rose Period
For more details on this topic, see Picasso's Rose Period.
The Rose Period (1905?1907) is characterized by a more cheery style with orange and pink colors, and again featuring many harlequins. Picasso met Fernande Olivier, a model for sculptors and artists, in Paris in 1904, and many of these paintings are influenced by his warm relationship with her, in addition to his increased exposure to French painting.
African-influenced Period
Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907For more details on this topic, see Picasso's African Period.
Picasso's African-influenced Period (1907?1909) begins with the two figures on the right in his painting, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, which were inspired by African artifacts. Formal ideas developed during this period lead directly into the Cubist period that follows.
Analytic cubism
For more details on this topic, see Analytic cubism.
Analytic cubism (1909?1912) is a style of painting Picasso developed along with Braque using monochrome brownish colours. Both artists took apart objects and "analyzed" them in terms of their shapes. Picasso and Braque's paintings at this time are very similar to each other.
Synthetic cubism
For more details on this topic, see Synthetic cubism.
Synthetic cubism (1912?1919) is a further development of Cubism in which cut paper fragments?often wallpaper or portions of newspaper pages?are pasted into compositions, marking the first use of collage in fine art.
Classicism and surrealism
For more details on this topic, see Classicism.
For more details on this topic, see surrealism.
Pablo Picasso, Guernica, 1937In the period following the upheaval of World War I Picasso produced work in a neoclassical style. This "return to order" is evident in the work of many European artists in the 1920s, including Derain, Giorgio de Chirico, and the artists of the New Objectivity movement. Picasso's paintings and drawings from this period frequently recall the work of Ingres.
During the 1930s, the minotaur replaced the harlequin as a motif which he used often in his work. His use of the minotaur came partly from his contact with the surrealists, who often used it as their symbol, and appears in Picasso's Guernica.[citation needed]
Arguably Picasso's most famous work is his depiction of the German bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War ? Guernica. This large canvas embodies for many the inhumanity, brutality and hopelessness of war.[citation needed] Asked to explain its symbolism, Picasso said, "It isn't up to the painter to define the symbols. Otherwise it would be better if he wrote them out in so many words! The public who look at the picture must interpret the symbols as they understand them."[16]
Guernica hung in New York's Museum of Modern Art for many years. In 1981 Guernica was returned to Spain and exhibited at the Cas?n del Buen Retiro. In 1992 the painting hung in Madrid's Reina Sof?a Museum when it opened.
Later works
Picasso was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the 3rd Sculpture International held at the Philadelphia Museum of Art in the summer of 1949. In the 1950s Picasso's style changed once again, as he took to producing reinterpretations of the art of the great masters. He made a series of works based on Velazquez's painting of Las Meninas. He also based paintings on works of art by Goya, Poussin, Manet, Courbet and Delacroix.
Picasso sculpture in Chicago.He was commissioned to make a maquette for a huge 50 foot high public sculpture to be built in Chicago, known usually as the Chicago Picasso. He approached the project with a great deal of enthusiasm, designing a sculpture which was ambiguous and somewhat controversial. What the figure represents is not known; it could be a bird, a horse, a woman or a totally abstract shape. The sculpture, one of the most recognizable landmarks in downtown Chicago, was unveiled in 1967. Picasso refused to be paid $100,000 for it, donating it to the people of the city.
Picasso's final works were a mixture of styles, his means of expression in constant flux until the end of his life. Devoting his full energies to his work, Picasso became more daring, his works more colourful and expressive, and from 1968 through 1971 he produced a torrent of paintings and hundreds of copperplate etchings. At the time these works were dismissed by most as pornographic fantasies of an impotent old man or the slapdash works of an artist who was past his prime. One long time admirer, Douglas Cooper, called them "the incoherent scribblings of a frenetic old man".[citation needed] Only later, after Picasso's death, when the rest of the art world had moved on from abstract expressionism, did the critical community come to see that Picasso had already discovered neo-expressionism and was, as so often before, ahead of his time.
Legacy
Picasso sculpture in Halmstad.At the time of his death many of his paintings were in his possession, as he had kept off the art market what he didn't need to sell. In addition, Picasso had a considerable collection of the work of other famous artists, some his contemporaries, such as Henri Matisse, with whom he had exchanged works. Since Picasso left no will, his death duties (estate tax) to the French state were paid in the form of his works and others from his collection. These works form the core of the immense and representative collection of the Mus?e Picasso in Paris. In 2003, relatives of Picasso inaugurated a museum dedicated to him in his birthplace, M?laga, Spain, the Museo Picasso M?laga.
The Museu Picasso in Barcelona features many of Picasso's early works, created while he was living in Spain, including many rarely seen works which reveal Picasso's firm grounding in classical techniques. The museum also holds many precise and detailed figure studies done in his youth under his father's tutelage, as well as the extensive collection of Jaime Sabart?s, Picasso's close friend from his Barcelona days who, for many years, was Picasso's personal secretary.
The film Surviving Picasso was made about Picasso in 1996, as seen through the eyes of Fran?oise Gilot. Anthony Hopkins played Picasso in the movie.
Some paintings by Picasso rank among the most expensive paintings in the world.
"Nude on a black armchair" - sold for USD $45.1 million in 1999 to Les Wexner, who then donated it to the Wexner Center for the Arts.
Les Noces de Pierrette - sold for more than USD $51 million in 1999.
Gar?on ? la pipe- sold for USD $104 million at Sotheby's on May 4, 2004, establishing a new price record.
Dora Maar au Chat - sold for USD $95.2 million at Sotheby's on May 3, 2006.[17]
Awards
Stalin Peace Prize (1950)
International Lenin Peace Prize (1962)
Children
Paulo (February 4, 1921 - June 5, 1975) (Born Paul Joseph Picasso) - with Olga Khokhlova
Maia (September 5, 1935 - ) (Born Maria de la Concepcion Picasso) - with Marie-Th?r?se Walter
Claude (May 15, 1947 -) (Born Claude Pierre Pablo Picasso) - with Fran?oise Gilot
Paloma (April 19, 1949 - ) (Born Anne Paloma Picasso) - with Fran?oise Gilot
Lists of works
Pablo Picasso, Le guitariste, 1910List of Picasso artworks 1889-1900
List of Picasso artworks 1901-1910
List of Picasso artworks 1911-1920
List of Picasso artworks 1921-1930
List of Picasso artworks 1931-1940
List of Picasso artworks 1941-1950
List of Picasso artworks 1951-1960
List of Picasso artworks 1961-1970
List of Picasso artworks 1971-1973
References
Notes
^ Biography of Picasso, retrieved on May 24 2007.
^ O'Brian, Patrick (1994). Picasso: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton, 14. ISBN 0-393-31107-4.
^ Gereon Becht-J?rdens, Peter M. Wehmeier (2003). Picasso und die christliche Ikonographie: Mutterbeziehung und k?nstlerische Position. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag. ISBN 3-496-01272-2.
^ Hughes, Robert. "Anatomy of a Minotaur", Time Magazine, 1971-11-01. Retrieved on 2007-08-23.
^ Time Magazine, STEALING THE MONA LISA, 1911. Consulted on August 15, 2007.
^ http://www.digital-karma.org/culture/quotes/famous-peoples-last-words accessed online August 15, 2007
^ [1],The Rich Die Richer and You Can too by By William D. Zabel, Published 1996 John Wiley and Sons, p.11. ISBN 0471155322 Accessed online August 15, 2007
^ Picasso's Party Line, ARTnews [2] Retrieved May 31, 2007.
^ The MoMA retrospective of 1939-40 - see Michael FitzGerald, Making Modernism: Picasso and the Creation of the Market for Twentieth-Century Art. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995. (pp.243-62)
^ Cirlot,1972, p.6
^ Cirlot, 1972, p. 14
^ Cirlot, 1972, p.37
^ Cirlot, 1972, p. 87-108.
^ Cirlot, 1972, p.127.
^ Wattenmaker and Distel, 1993, p. 304
^ http://www.pbs.org/treasuresoftheworld/guernica/gmain.html
^ Picasso portrait sells for $95.2 million. Retrieved on May 4, 2006.
Sources
The Museum of Modern Art. Pablo Picasso, a retrospective. Ed. William Rubin, chronology by Jane Fluegel. New York. 1980. ISBN 0-87070-519-9
Becht-J?rdens, Gereon; Wehmeier, Peter M. (2003). Picasso und die christliche Ikonographie. Mutterbeziehung und k?nstlerische Position. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag. ISBN 3-469-01272-2
Cirlot, Juan-Eduardo (1972). Picasso: birth of a genius. New York and Washington: Praeger.
Cowling, Elizabeth; Mundy, Jennifer (1990). On Classic Ground: Picasso, L?ger, de Chirico and the New Classicism 1910-1930. London: Tate Gallery. ISBN 1-85437-043-X
Fitzgerald, Michael C. Making Modernism: Picasso and the Creation of the Market for Twentieth-Century Art. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995.
Eugenio Fern?ndez Granell, Picasso's Guernica : the end of a Spanish era (Ann Arbor, Mich. : UMI Research Press, 1981) ISBN 0835712060 9780835712064 9780835712064 0835712060
Ledor, Kobi, MD. "A Guide to Collecting Picasso's Prints"
Mallen Enrique (2003). The Visual Grammar of Pablo Picasso. Berkeley Insights in Linguistics & Semiotics Series. Berlin: Peter Lang.
Mallen, Enrique (2005). La Sintaxis de la Carne: Pablo Picasso y Marie-Th?r?se Walter. Santiago de Chile: Red Internacional del Libro.
Picasso, Olivier Widmaier. (2004). Picasso: The Real Family Story. Prestel Publ. ISBN 3-7913-3149-3
Rubin, William, ed. (1980) Pablo Picasso, a retrospective. Chronology by Jane Fluegel. Museum of Modern Art|The Museum of Modern Art. New York. ISBN 0-87070-519-9
Wattenmaker, Richard J.; Distel, Anne, et al. (1993). Great French Paintings from the Barnes Foundation. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-679-40963-7
Nill, Raymond M. "A Visual Guide to Pablo Picasso's Works". New York: B&H Publishers, 1987.
See also
Light writing, a technique used by Picasso many years before it came into current (2007) vogue
List of most expensive paintings
Picasso museums
The Modern Lovers' song "Pablo Picasso"
Band on the Run, Paul McCartney's song
icasso's Last Words (Drink To Me). External links
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:
Pablo PicassoWikimedia Commons has media related to:
Pablo PicassoA brief look at the genius of Picasso
On-Line Picasso Project: Comprehensive summary of his life and his work.
Pablo Picasso - Biography, Quotes & Paintings, retrieved June 14 2007.
Official website
Video decoding a Picasso Cubist still-life
Poems by Picasso in English translation from Samizdat (poetry magazine)
smARThistory: Still Life with Chair Caning
smARThistory: Portrait of Gertrude Stein
Pablo Picasso - Biography and paintings
Cubism, The Big Picture
Museums
Guggenheim Museum Biography
Hilo Art Museum, (Hilo Hawaii, USA)
Honolulu Academy of Arts
Metropolitan Museum of Arts, New York
Mus?e National Picasso (Paris, France)
Mus?e Picasso (Antibes, France)
Museo Picasso M?laga (M?laga, Spain)
Museu Picasso (Barcelona, Spain)
Museum Berggruen (Berlin, Germany)
Museum of Modern Art (MoMA)
National Gallery of Art list of paintings
Online galleries
Pablo Picasso's paintings in the Private Art Collection
Essays
Power and Tenderness in Men and in Picasso's 'Minotauromachy' by Chaim Koppelman
Federal Bureau of Investigation files: Summary of FBI investigation of Picasso
Pablo Picasso works and periods
Periods: Blue (1901?1904), Rose (1905?1907), African (1908?1909), Analytic cubism (1909?1912), Synthetic cubism (1912?1919)
List of works: 1889-1900, 1901-1910, 1911-1920, 1921-1930, 1931-1940, 1941-1950, 1951-1960, 1961-1970, 1971-1973
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Persondata
NAME Picasso, Pablo
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Pablo Ruiz y Picasso
SHORT DESCRIPTION Spanish painter and sculptor
DATE OF BIRTH October 25, 1881
PLACE OF BIRTH M?laga, Spain
DATE OF DEATH April 8, 1973
PLACE OF DEATH Mougins, France
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Picasso"
Categories: Semi-protected against vandalism | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since August 2007 | Pablo Picasso | Modern painters | Spanish painters | Spanish sculptors | Spanish people of the Spanish Civil
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